The Deforestation of England
Today’s typical English countryside of rolling green fields and few trees did not evolve naturally. England was originally wooded. Forests of oak and other hardwoods had filled the southern lands, while conifer stands populated the higher latitudes. Sheepherders over the centuries converted many of these to pastureland. Nevertheless, the domestic wood supply remained great enough to handle timber and firewood demands. Then, beginning in the 1540s, came new manufacturing industries that destroyed the forests for their fuel. This new wave of deforestation started with the iron industry-an early royal effort to boost manufacturing in accord with trade-based economic theory -since the production of iron required immense amounts of heat and, initially, used charcoal (which is derived from wood) as fuel. In 1543,Parliament first addressed the impending timber shortage with the Act for the Preservation of Woods, which restricted farmers from using woodlands more than two furlongs (about 400 meters) from their homes. British forests were rapidly disappearing.
The situation worsened during the long reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). She promoted numerous other wood-fuel-driven manufacturing industries, including copper smelting (the process of obtaining metal from metallic mineral deposits), salt making, and glass production. (The coal industry, which was beginning, could not meet the rapidly increasing demand for fuel.) One writer from this period commented, “Never so much [oak] hath been spent in a hundred years before as is in 10 years of our time.” The price of firewood doubled between 1540 and 1570. This pushed some citizens out of the firewood market, and it became commonplace for the poor to shiver through the winters. The timber shortage had turned a product once freely available for the cutting into a valuable commodity.
But fuel needs did not fully account for England’s timber demand. Wood was also necessary in the construction of ships. And Queen Elizabeth, in addition to promoting domestic manufacturing, had championed shipbuilding, part of the Crown’s long-term strategy to contest Spanish sea power and strengthen English commercial trade. Few industries in history have depended on wood quite like shipbuilding (at least before the conversion to iron and steel ship parts in the mid-nineteenth century). A large naval warship, known as a ship of the line and constructed almost entirely from wood, weighed over one hundred tons in the early seventeenth century. The bodies of such vessels required about two thousand mature oaks, which meant at least fifty acres of forest (200,000 square meters) had to be stripped. While oak supplied the timber for much of the ship, it was too inflexible and heavy for ship masts, the poles that supported the canvas sails. Instead, these required lighter and more shock-resistant softwoods, such as pines and firs. The largest masts were about a meter wide at their base and over 30 meters tall-roughly one meter in height per inch in width. To maintain these wooden cathedrals of the sea, shipwrights (skilled workers who build and repair ships) relied on a range of forest products, known as naval stores, extracted from pines as well as firs. Most notable were the tar, pitch, and turpentine used to seal the wood and protect it from seawater. These materials were essential for maintaining the integrity and longevity of the ships, ensuring that they were watertight and resistant to the rotting effects of the ocean. The procurement of these naval stores was itself a significant undertaking, requiring extensive knowledge of forestry and sustainable harvesting techniques to ensure a steady supply without depleting the forests.
The twin demands of shipbuilding and a manufacturing industry hungry for wood fuel had turned England into a wood importer. In particular, the country had to trade for masts and naval stores, since it had no suitably commercial conifer forests. The preferred mast trees, called Riga firs or Scotch pines, came from an Eastern European region around the city of Riga (in present-day Latvia), but several northern countries had giant spruce forests that were also exploited for naval stores. The trade centered on ports in Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea-the latter, which included Riga, accessible only through narrow straits (waterways) between Denmark and Sweden. Rulers who controlled the various ports and access to the straits knew that England’s sea power depended on forest products and, consequently, kept duties, taxes, and shipping fees high. The Danish, for example, collected tolls for each crossing. If England ever lost access to these ports, it would cripple the entire English shipping industry, and with it the Royal Navy.
1
Today’s typical English countryside of rolling green fields and few trees did not evolve naturally. England was originally wooded. Forests of oak and other hardwoods had filled the southern lands, while conifer stands populated the higher latitudes. Sheepherders over the centuries converted many of these to pastureland. Nevertheless, the domestic wood supply remained great enough to handle timber and firewood demands. Then, beginning in the 1540s, came new manufacturing industries that destroyed the forests for their fuel. This new wave of deforestation started with the iron industry-an early royal effort to boost manufacturing in accord with trade-based economic theory -since the production of iron required immense amounts of heat and, initially, used charcoal (which is derived from wood) as fuel. In 1543,Parliament first addressed the impending timber shortage with the Act for the Preservation of Woods, which restricted farmers from using woodlands more than two furlongs (about 400 meters) from their homes. British forests were rapidly disappearing.
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Sentence Simplification Questions句子简化题
AThere was an effort to boost manufacturing and improve the economy by replacing charcoal with other fuels not derived from wood.
BA new wave of deforestation occurred as a result of a royal effort to get the iron industry to use charcoal to generate heat.
CWood-derived charcoal was initially the source of the immense amounts of heat needed for the production of iron.
DThe royal promotion of the iron industry, which used large amounts of wood-derived charcoal for fuel, began a new wave of deforestation.
2
Today’s typical English countryside of rolling green fields and few trees did not evolve naturally. England was originally wooded. Forests of oak and other hardwoods had filled the southern lands, while conifer stands populated the higher latitudes. Sheepherders over the centuries converted many of these to pastureland. Nevertheless, the domestic wood supply remained great enough to handle timber and firewood demands. Then, beginning in the 1540s, came new manufacturing industries that destroyed the forests for their fuel. This new wave of deforestation started with the iron industry-an early royal effort to boost manufacturing in accord with trade-based economic theory -since the production of iron required immense amounts of heat and, initially, used charcoal (which is derived from wood) as fuel. In 1543,Parliament first addressed the impending timber shortage with the Act for the Preservation of Woods, which restricted farmers from using woodlands more than two furlongs (about 400 meters) from their homes. British forests were rapidly disappearing.
According to paragraph 1， which of the following was true of English forests before the 1540s?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AThey usually contained a mixture of conifers and hardwood trees.
BThose at higher latitudes remained largely untouched.
CThey provided enough wood to meet the country’s needs.
DNearly all of them had been converted to pastureland.
3
Today’s typical English countryside of rolling green fields and few trees did not evolve naturally. England was originally wooded. Forests of oak and other hardwoods had filled the southern lands, while conifer stands populated the higher latitudes. Sheepherders over the centuries converted many of these to pastureland. Nevertheless, the domestic wood supply remained great enough to handle timber and firewood demands. Then, beginning in the 1540s, came new manufacturing industries that destroyed the forests for their fuel. This new wave of deforestation started with the iron industry-an early royal effort to boost manufacturing in accord with trade-based economic theory -since the production of iron required immense amounts of heat and, initially, used charcoal (which is derived from wood) as fuel. In 1543,Parliament first addressed the impending timber shortage with the Act for the Preservation of Woods, which restricted farmers from using woodlands more than two furlongs (about 400 meters) from their homes. British forests were rapidly disappearing.
According to paragraph 1， the 1543 Act for the Preservation of Woods made it illegal for farmers to
Rhetorical Purpose Questions修辞目的题
Aobtain wood that originated far from their homes
Buse forests within two furlongs of their homes
Cbuild a home within two furlongs of a forest
Dkeep a distance of two furlongs between their home and any forest
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The situation worsened during the long reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). She promoted numerous other wood-fuel-driven manufacturing industries, including copper smelting (the process of obtaining metal from metallic mineral deposits), salt making, and glass production. (The coal industry, which was beginning, could not meet the rapidly increasing demand for fuel.) One writer from this period commented, “Never so much [oak] hath been spent in a hundred years before as is in 10 years of our time.” The price of firewood doubled between 1540 and 1570. This pushed some citizens out of the firewood market, and it became commonplace for the poor to shiver through the winters. The timber shortage had turned a product once freely available for the cutting into a valuable commodity.
Paragraph 2 suggests that the price of firewood doubled between 1540 and 1570 for which of the following reasons?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
ATrees had become much less plentiful.
BThe new coal industry was slow to supply fuel for home heating.
CPeople who had previously marketed firewood worked in industrial production instead.
DThe queen restricted the availability of wood for commercial use.
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But fuel needs did not fully account for England’s timber demand. Wood was also necessary in the construction of ships. And Queen Elizabeth, in addition to promoting domestic manufacturing, had championed shipbuilding, part of the Crown’s long-term strategy to contest Spanish sea power and strengthen English commercial trade. Few industries in history have depended on wood quite like shipbuilding (at least before the conversion to iron and steel ship parts in the mid-nineteenth century). A large naval warship, known as a ship of the line and constructed almost entirely from wood, weighed over one hundred tons in the early seventeenth century. The bodies of such vessels required about two thousand mature oaks, which meant at least fifty acres of forest (200,000 square meters) had to be stripped. While oak supplied the timber for much of the ship, it was too inflexible and heavy for ship masts, the poles that supported the canvas sails. Instead, these required lighter and more shock-resistant softwoods, such as pines and firs. The largest masts were about a meter wide at their base and over 30 meters tall-roughly one meter in height per inch in width. To maintain these wooden cathedrals of the sea, shipwrights (skilled workers who build and repair ships) relied on a range of forest products, known as naval stores, extracted from pines as well as firs. Most notable were the tar, pitch, and turpentine used to seal the wood and protect it from seawater. These materials were essential for maintaining the integrity and longevity of the ships, ensuring that they were watertight and resistant to the rotting effects of the ocean. The procurement of these naval stores was itself a significant undertaking, requiring extensive knowledge of forestry and sustainable harvesting techniques to ensure a steady supply without depleting the forests.
The word”contest”in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aequal
Blearn from
Cdestroy
Dchallenge
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But fuel needs did not fully account for England’s timber demand. Wood was also necessary in the construction of ships. And Queen Elizabeth, in addition to promoting domestic manufacturing, had championed shipbuilding, part of the Crown’s long-term strategy to contest Spanish sea power and strengthen English commercial trade. Few industries in history have depended on wood quite like shipbuilding (at least before the conversion to iron and steel ship parts in the mid-nineteenth century). A large naval warship, known as a ship of the line and constructed almost entirely from wood, weighed over one hundred tons in the early seventeenth century. The bodies of such vessels required about two thousand mature oaks, which meant at least fifty acres of forest (200,000 square meters) had to be stripped. While oak supplied the timber for much of the ship, it was too inflexible and heavy for ship masts, the poles that supported the canvas sails. Instead, these required lighter and more shock-resistant softwoods, such as pines and firs. The largest masts were about a meter wide at their base and over 30 meters tall-roughly one meter in height per inch in width. To maintain these wooden cathedrals of the sea, shipwrights (skilled workers who build and repair ships) relied on a range of forest products, known as naval stores, extracted from pines as well as firs. Most notable were the tar, pitch, and turpentine used to seal the wood and protect it from seawater. These materials were essential for maintaining the integrity and longevity of the ships, ensuring that they were watertight and resistant to the rotting effects of the ocean. The procurement of these naval stores was itself a significant undertaking, requiring extensive knowledge of forestry and sustainable harvesting techniques to ensure a steady supply without depleting the forests.
Why does the author point out that oak wood was “too inflexible and heavy for ship masts”?
Rhetorical Purpose Questions修辞目的题
ATo identify a reason why the use of oak eventually declined in ship building
BTo emphasize the difficulty of maintaining a full supply of naval stores
CTo explain why a variety of forest materials were needed for building ships
DTo help explain why shipbuilding involved stripping the trees from many acres of land
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The twin demands of shipbuilding and a manufacturing industry hungry for wood fuel had turned England into a wood importer. In particular, the country had to trade for masts and naval stores, since it had no suitably commercial conifer forests. The preferred mast trees, called Riga firs or Scotch pines, came from an Eastern European region around the city of Riga (in present-day Latvia), but several northern countries had giant spruce forests that were also exploited for naval stores. The trade centered on ports in Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea-the latter, which included Riga, accessible only through narrow straits (waterways) between Denmark and Sweden. Rulers who controlled the various ports and access to the straits knew that England’s sea power depended on forest products and, consequently, kept duties, taxes, and shipping fees high. The Danish, for example, collected tolls for each crossing. If England ever lost access to these ports, it would cripple the entire English shipping industry, and with it the Royal Navy.
The word “exploited” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Achosen
Bused
Cmanaged
Dexported
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The twin demands of shipbuilding and a manufacturing industry hungry for wood fuel had turned England into a wood importer. In particular, the country had to trade for masts and naval stores, since it had no suitably commercial conifer forests. The preferred mast trees, called Riga firs or Scotch pines, came from an Eastern European region around the city of Riga (in present-day Latvia), but several northern countries had giant spruce forests that were also exploited for naval stores. The trade centered on ports in Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea-the latter, which included Riga, accessible only through narrow straits (waterways) between Denmark and Sweden. Rulers who controlled the various ports and access to the straits knew that England’s sea power depended on forest products and, consequently, kept duties, taxes, and shipping fees high. The Danish, for example, collected tolls for each crossing. If England ever lost access to these ports, it would cripple the entire English shipping industry, and with it the Royal Navy.
According to paragraph 4,England needed which of the following in order to have access to essential forest products?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AAccess to conifer forests in remote parts of northern England
BAccess to ports in Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea
CThe construction of new, wider waterways between Denmark and Sweden
DThe creation of a trade deal with Denmark that eliminated shipping fees
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Today’s typical English countryside of rolling green fields and few trees did not evolve naturally. [■]England was originally wooded. [■] Forests of oak and other hardwoods had filled the southern lands, while conifer stands populated the higher latitudes. [■] Sheepherders over the centuries converted many of these to pastureland. [■]Nevertheless, the domestic wood supply remained great enough to handle timber and firewood demands. Then, beginning in the 1540s, came new manufacturing industries that destroyed the forests for their fuel. This new wave of deforestation started with the iron industry-an early royal effort to boost manufacturing in accord with trade-based economic theory -since the production of iron required immense amounts of heat and, initially, used charcoal (which is derived from wood) as fuel. In 1543,Parliament first addressed the impending timber shortage with the Act for the Preservation of Woods, which restricted farmers from using woodlands more than two furlongs (about 400 meters) from their homes. British forests were rapidly disappearing.
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
Exactly when trees began being cleared for this reason remains uncertain, but by 1000 B.c.E. much of England’s original forests had been removedInsert Text Questions句子插入题
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
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England’s increasing need for wood led to firewood shortages and deforestation in the sixteenth century.
Prose Summary Questions概要小结题
Select 3 answers
AEngland’s increasing need for wood led to firewood shortages and deforestation in the sixteenth century.
BLargely as a result of increases in the practice of converting forests to pastureland for sheep, England began experiencing wood shortages in the early 1500s.
CIn an effort to evenly distribute the shrinking supply of wood, rural inhabitants were given exclusive access to small portions of woodland next to their properties.
DShipbuilding, which was essential to build up the nation’s navy and promote its commercial trade, required massive amounts of trees, putting a great strain on the nation’s oak forests.
EWith the approval of Queen Elizabeth I, Parliament addressed the harmful effects of the wood shortage on farmers and the poor by passing the Act for the Preservation of Woods.
FQueen Elizabeth I promoted the iron industry and other industries that similarly required great amounts of heat produced by charcoal or other fuels derived from wood.
GWood, especially conifer products needed for shipbuilding, had to be imported from northern or eastern Europe, allowing Scandinavian and Baltic countries to impose significant taxes, tolls, and other fees.
