Pastoralism as a Way of Life
Pastoralism is a form of food production that involves the keeping of domesticated herd animals and influences both the social and economic patterns of the societies in which it is practiced. Pastoralism is found in areas of the world that cannot support agriculture because of inadequate terrain, soils, or rainfall. However, these environments do provide sufficient vegetation to support livestock, provided the animals are able to graze over a large enough area. Thus, pastoralism is associated with geographic mobility, because herds must be moved periodically to exploit seasonal pastures.
Some anthropologists have differentiated between two types of movement patterns: transhumance and nomadism. With transhumance, some of the men in a pastoral society move their livestock seasonally to different pastures, while the women, children, and other men remain in permanent settlements. With nomadism, on the other hand, there are no permanent villages, and the whole social unit of men, women, and children moves the livestock to new pastures. But as the anthropologists Rada and Neville Dyson-Hudson have pointed out, the enormous variation even within societies renders such a distinction somewhat ineffective. For example, following seven Karamojong herds over a two-year period, the Dyson-Hudsons found that “each herd owner moved in a totally different orbit, with one remaining sedentary for a full year and one grazing his herd over 500 square miles.”
Even though anthropologists tend to lump pastoralists into a single food-getting category, pastoralism is not a unified phenomenon. For example, there are wide variations in the ways animals are herded. The principal herd animals are cattle in eastern and southern Africa, camels in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, reindeer in the subarctic areas of eastern Europe and Siberia, yaks in the Himalayan region, and various forms of mixed herding (including goats, sheep, and cattle) in a number of places in Europe and Asia. In addition to variations in the type of animals, a number of other social and environmental factors can influence the cultural patterns of pastoral people, including the availability of water and pasturage, the presence of diseases, the location and timing of markets, government restrictions, and the demands of other food-getting strategies (such as cultivation) that the pastoralists may practice.
A general characteristic of nomadic pastoralists is that they take advantage of seasonal variations in pasturage so as to maximize the food supply of their herds. The Kazaks of Eurasia, for example, keep their livestock at lower elevations during the winter, move to the foothills in the spring, and migrate to the high mountain pastures during the summer. Such seasonal movement provides optimal pasturage and avoids climatic extremes that could negatively affect the livestock. This willingness to move their animals at different times of the year avoids overgrazing and enables them to raise considerably more livestock than they could if they chose not to migrate.
Anthropologists agree that pure pastoralists-that is, those who get all of their food from livestock-are either extremely rare or nonexistent. Because livestock alone cannot meet all of the nutritional needs of a population, most pastoralists need some grains to supplement their diets. Many pastoralists, therefore, either combine the keeping of livestock with some form of cultivation or maintain regular trade relations with neighboring agriculturalists. Moreover, the literature is filled with examples of nomadic pastoralists who produce crafts for sale or trade, occasionally work for the government, or drive trucks. Thus, many pastoralists have long engaged in nonpastoral activities, but they have always considered raising animals to be their normal, or certainly ideal, means of livelihood.
It is clear that in pastoral societies livestock play a vital economic role not only as a food source but in other ways as well. In addition to the obvious economic importance of meat and milk as food sources, cattle provide dung (used for fertilizer, house building, and fuel), bone (used for tools and artifacts), and skins (used for clothing). But in addition to these important economic uses, there are a number of important noneconomic or social functions of cattle. Livestock often influence the social relationships among people in pastoral societies. For example, an exchange of livestock between the families of the bride and the groom is required in many pastoral societies before a marriage can be legitimized.
1
Pastoralism is a form of food production that involves the keeping of domesticated herd animals and influences both the social and economic patterns of the societies in which it is practiced. Pastoralism is found in areas of the world that cannot support agriculture because of inadequate terrain, soils, or rainfall. However, these environments do provide sufficient vegetation to support livestock, provided the animals are able to graze over a large enough area. Thus, pastoralism is associated with geographic mobility, because herds must be moved periodically to exploit seasonal pastures.
The word “exploit” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Achange
Btravel to
Cmake use of
Darrive at
2
Some anthropologists have differentiated between two types of movement patterns: transhumance and nomadism. With transhumance, some of the men in a pastoral society move their livestock seasonally to different pastures, while the women, children, and other men remain in permanent settlements. With nomadism, on the other hand, there are no permanent villages, and the whole social unit of men, women, and children moves the livestock to new pastures. But as the anthropologists Rada and Neville Dyson-Hudson have pointed out, the enormous variation even within societies renders such a distinction somewhat ineffective. For example, following seven Karamojong herds over a two-year period, the Dyson-Hudsons found that “each herd owner moved in a totally different orbit, with one remaining sedentary for a full year and one grazing his herd over 500 square miles.”
According to paragraph 2, which of the following best describes the distinction between transhumance and nomadism?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
ATranshumance involves the movement of only some livestock at a time, while nomadism involves the movement of entire herds
BTranshumance involves the movement of only some members of a social unit, while nomadism involves the movement of entire social units
CTranshumance involves the participation of an entire social group in food production, while nomadism involves the male members in food production
DTranshumance involves movement of livestock based on seasonal conditions, while nomadism involves movement based on housing needs of the social group
3
Even though anthropologists tend to lump pastoralists into a single food-getting category, pastoralism is not a unified phenomenon. For example, there are wide variations in the ways animals are herded. The principal herd animals are cattle in eastern and southern Africa, camels in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, reindeer in the subarctic areas of eastern Europe and Siberia, yaks in the Himalayan region, and various forms of mixed herding (including goats, sheep, and cattle) in a number of places in Europe and Asia. In addition to variations in the type of animals, a number of other social and environmental factors can influence the cultural patterns of pastoral people, including the availability of water and pasturage, the presence of diseases, the location and timing of markets, government restrictions, and the demands of other food-getting strategies (such as cultivation) that the pastoralists may practice.
Paragraph 3 suggests that anthropologists have generally held which of the following incorrect views about pastoralist societies?
Inference Questions推理题
APastoralist societies often change the types of animals they herd based on social and environmental factors
BPastoralist societies are usually not successful in areas without markets where they can trade their products.
CPastoralist societies have food production practices that are basically the same and can be classified in one way.
DPastoralist societies are likely to be more successful when they have mixed herds rather than a single type of animal
4
Even though anthropologists tend to lump pastoralists into a single food-getting category, pastoralism is not a unified phenomenon. For example, there are wide variations in the ways animals are herded. The principal herd animals are cattle in eastern and southern Africa, camels in North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, reindeer in the subarctic areas of eastern Europe and Siberia, yaks in the Himalayan region, and various forms of mixed herding (including goats, sheep, and cattle) in a number of places in Europe and Asia. In addition to variations in the type of animals, a number of other social and environmental factors can influence the cultural patterns of pastoral people, including the availability of water and pasturage, the presence of diseases, the location and timing of markets, government restrictions, and the demands of other food-getting strategies (such as cultivation) that the pastoralists may practice.
Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as affecting the specific way a social group practices pastoralism?
Negative Factual Information Questions否定事实信息题
AThe type of animal or animals that the group herds
BThe existence of diseases in certain areas
CThe need to focus on additional methods of obtaining food
DThe presence of other pastoralist groups in the same area
5
A general characteristic of nomadic pastoralists is that they take advantage of seasonal variations in pasturage so as to maximize the food supply of their herds. The Kazaks of Eurasia, for example, keep their livestock at lower elevations during the winter, move to the foothills in the spring, and migrate to the high mountain pastures during the summer. Such seasonal movement provides optimal pasturage and avoids climatic extremes that could negatively affect the livestock. This willingness to move their animals at different times of the year avoids overgrazing and enables them to raise considerably more livestock than they could if they chose not to migrate.
In paragraph 4, why does the author discuss specific practices of the Kazaks of Eurasia?
Rhetorical Purpose Questions修辞目的题
ATo point out a key difference between pastoralists in Eurasia and pastoralists in other areas of the world
BTo show how difficult it is to identify general characteristics that apply to all nomadic pastoralists
CTo illustrate the idea that some pastoralists adapt to environmental conditions in order to improve their food supply
DTo demonstrate that some pastoralist societies avoid moving their herds more than is absolutely necessary
6
Anthropologists agree that pure pastoralists-that is, those who get all of their food from livestock-are either extremely rare or nonexistent. Because livestock alone cannot meet all of the nutritional needs of a population, most pastoralists need some grains to supplement their diets. Many pastoralists, therefore, either combine the keeping of livestock with some form of cultivation or maintain regular trade relations with neighboring agriculturalists. Moreover, the literature is filled with examples of nomadic pastoralists who produce crafts for sale or trade, occasionally work for the government, or drive trucks. Thus, many pastoralists have long engaged in nonpastoral activities, but they have always considered raising animals to be their normal, or certainly ideal, means of livelihood.
The word “supplement” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aadd to
Bbalance
Cvary
Dsimplify
7
Anthropologists agree that pure pastoralists-that is, those who get all of their food from livestock-are either extremely rare or nonexistent. Because livestock alone cannot meet all of the nutritional needs of a population, most pastoralists need some grains to supplement their diets. Many pastoralists, therefore, either combine the keeping of livestock with some form of cultivation or maintain regular trade relations with neighboring agriculturalists. Moreover, the literature is filled with examples of nomadic pastoralists who produce crafts for sale or trade, occasionally work for the government, or drive trucks. Thus, many pastoralists have long engaged in nonpastoral activities, but they have always considered raising animals to be their normal, or certainly ideal, means of livelihood.
Paragraph 5 answers which of the following questions about the activities of pastoralists?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AWhy do some pastoralists prefer to cultivate grains rather than trade for them?
BWhy do most pastoralists engage in some type of nonpastoral work?
CWhat types of crafts are typically produced by nomadic pastoralists?
DHow common is it for pastoralists to use motor vehicles to help with herding?
8
It is clear that in pastoral societies livestock play a vital economic role not only as a food source but in other ways as well. In addition to the obvious economic importance of meat and milk as food sources, cattle provide dung (used for fertilizer, house building, and fuel), bone (used for tools and artifacts), and skins (used for clothing). But in addition to these important economic uses, there are a number of important noneconomic or social functions of cattle. Livestock often influence the social relationships among people in pastoral societies. For example, an exchange of livestock between the families of the bride and the groom is required in many pastoral societies before a marriage can be legitimized.
Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 6 as an important role that livestock can play in pastoral societies beyond being a food source?
Negative Factual Information Questions否定事实信息题
AProviding material that can be used for fuel
BSupplying bones that can be made into tools
CBeing given as wedding gifts to a newly married couple
DBeing traded by parents whose children intend to marry
9
Pastoralism is a form of food production that involves the keeping of domesticated herd animals and influences both the social and economic patterns of the societies in which it is practiced. [■]Pastoralism is found in areas of the world that cannot support agriculture because of inadequate terrain, soils, or rainfall. [■]However, these environments do provide sufficient vegetation to support livestock, provided the animals are able to graze over a large enough area. [■]Thus, pastoralism is associated with geographic mobility, because herds must be moved periodically to exploit seasonal pastures.[■]
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
Environmental conditions strongly influence whether a society practices this type of food production
Insert Text Questions句子插入题
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
10
Pastoralism is a form of food production focused on raising herd animals.
Prose Summary Questions概要小结题
Select 3 answers
APastoralists regularly more their herds and can succeed in places here agriculturalists cannot, but classifying an entire society’s movement pattern is difficult due to variation among individuals.
BMost forms of pastoralism involve following herds of animals for long distances across their natural migration routes to find seasonal food sources
CBecause animals alone cannot fill all the nutritional needs of a human population, nearly all pastoralists must engage in other activities
DThe movements and practices of pastoralists are determined in part by the types of animals and natural resources available to them, as well as seasonal changes in weather.
EPastoralism is rare in parts of the world where climatic extremes place limits on herders’ ability to protect their livestock from weather and disease.
FThe exchange of livestock at weddings within some societies signals the start of the new family’s practice of pastoralist farming.
