Late Classic Maya Agriculture
The great Maya civilization of Mesoamerica(what is now Mexico and Central America) underwent a precipitous decline in its Late Classic period(600-900 A.D.), and though many different explanations have been proposed for this collapse, Maya agriculture certainly played a role. While Maya agriculture could be remarkably productive, it also suffered from strong inherent risks and limitations.
Despite the fact that their farming practices were technologically underdeveloped cnmpared to those of Old World(European, African, and Asian)civilizations, Maya farmers enjoyed several advantages, especially where population densities were low and plots of land could be developed and then abandoned for more fertile plots when the first land was no longer productive(a technique called shifting cultivation). One advantage derived from the very simplicity of their agricultural tasks. Because they could make the modest tools needed to work their fields from locally available materials, Maya farmers did not have to purchase metal implements made by specialists, or buy, rent, and maintain expensive animals to attach to plows or wagons, like Old World peasants. Necessary agricultural labor could be provided by domestic households, so it was unnecessary to hire farmhands (though illness or death of workers could cause severe problems for the domestic workforce). Even large projects, such as the hillside terraces and drained fields that many archaeologists believe supported vast Classic period populations, could be built with domestic labor augmented, when necessary, by the help of neighbors or relatives. In other words, the basic costs of agricultural production were low, and the necessary skills and knowledge were widely available.
Another set of advantages derived from the nature of the principal staple crop-maize. On decent soils watered by adequate rainfall, maize typically produced larger yields per unit of cultivated land-perhaps twice as much-than Old World small grains such as wheat, barley, or oats grown by medieval European farmers. And because of the way these latter grains were sown, anywhere from one-sixth to one-third of the European annual crop had to be reserved for seed (except where irrigation was used). For maize the ratio of seed input to output was much more favorable, and because there were few domestic animals to feed, virtually all of the harvest could be consumed by humans.
On the other hand there were some severe limitations, one of which was caused by the history of land use itself. By the eighth century many of the most favorable parts of the Maya Lowlands had already been cultivated for hundreds of years. The population explosion of Late Classic times took place on local landscapes that no longer were natural in any sense of the word, because they had already long been humanized(degraded)by generations of use. Heavy episodes of deforestation and erosion have been documented for several regions as early as Preclassic times (2000 B.C.-200 A.D.), and there is strong evidence that some centers and regions experienced cycles of growth and abandonment long before the collapse. Even when overall populations were low, early farmers packed into any small region could obviously damage their environment severely. Early on, mobility seems to have been one of their solutions-people left for better lands elsewhere.
Another limitation involved technology. Without metal tools, complex machines, and sources of animal energy, Maya farmers could cultivate only very small amounts of land and they also had to schedule their work carefully to take into account the constraints of the seasons. Even where good land was abundant, Maya producers could accordingly generate only small per capita surpluses. Working diligently during a good year, a healthy farmer might cultivate 2-2.5 hectares(5-6.2 acres), which would yield roughly 1,000 kilograms per hectare(890 pounds per acre) of maize. If this land were of sufficient quality, it would yield twice as much food-around 2,000 kilograms(4,400 pounds)-as his family ate annually, after subtracting that amount reserved for next year’s seed stock and lost in storage. In other words, each family, if it had good land and worked hard, might generate only enough surplus food to support one other family of similar size-as opposed to perhaps five to six times the amount of food a family needed in the case of some Old World farmers.
1
Despite the fact that their farming practices were technologically underdeveloped cnmpared to those of Old World(European, African, and Asian)civilizations, Maya farmers enjoyed several advantages, especially where population densities were low and plots of land could be developed and then abandoned for more fertile plots when the first land was no longer productive(a technique called shifting cultivation). One advantage derived from the very simplicity of their agricultural tasks. Because they could make the modest tools needed to work their fields from locally available materials, Maya farmers did not have to purchase metal implements made by specialists, or buy, rent, and maintain expensive animals to attach to plows or wagons, like Old World peasants. Necessary agricultural labor could be provided by domestic households, so it was unnecessary to hire farmhands (though illness or death of workers could cause severe problems for the domestic workforce). Even large projects, such as the hillside terraces and drained fields that many archaeologists believe supported vast Classic period populations, could be built with domestic labor augmented, when necessary, by the help of neighbors or relatives. In other words, the basic costs of agricultural production were low, and the necessary skills and knowledge were widely available.
According to paragraph 2, conditions were most favorable for Maya farmers in areas where
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
Ashifting cultivation was not often practiced
Bthe population density was low
Ctools were easily available to buy or rent
Dthe land had been under cultivation for a long time
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Despite the fact that their farming practices were technologically underdeveloped cnmpared to those of Old World(European, African, and Asian)civilizations, Maya farmers enjoyed several advantages, especially where population densities were low and plots of land could be developed and then abandoned for more fertile plots when the first land was no longer productive(a technique called shifting cultivation). One advantage derived from the very simplicity of their agricultural tasks. Because they could make the modest tools needed to work their fields from locally available materials, Maya farmers did not have to purchase metal implements made by specialists, or buy, rent, and maintain expensive animals to attach to plows or wagons, like Old World peasants. Necessary agricultural labor could be provided by domestic households, so it was unnecessary to hire farmhands (though illness or death of workers could cause severe problems for the domestic workforce). Even large projects, such as the hillside terraces and drained fields that many archaeologists believe supported vast Classic period populations, could be built with domestic labor augmented, when necessary, by the help of neighbors or relatives. In other words, the basic costs of agricultural production were low, and the necessary skills and knowledge were widely available.
According to paragraph 2, which of the following was true of large projects such as the construction of hillside terraces and drained fields?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AThe projects could usually be accomplished without hiring laborers.
BThe projects often contributed to illness and death among workers.
CThe projects were more sophisticated than Old World construction projects.
DThe projects supported smaller populations than many archaeologists believe.
3
Despite the fact that their farming practices were technologically underdeveloped cnmpared to those of Old World(European, African, and Asian)civilizations, Maya farmers enjoyed several advantages, especially where population densities were low and plots of land could be developed and then abandoned for more fertile plots when the first land was no longer productive(a technique called shifting cultivation). One advantage derived from the very simplicity of their agricultural tasks. Because they could make the modest tools needed to work their fields from locally available materials, Maya farmers did not have to purchase metal implements made by specialists, or buy, rent, and maintain expensive animals to attach to plows or wagons, like Old World peasants. Necessary agricultural labor could be provided by domestic households, so it was unnecessary to hire farmhands (though illness or death of workers could cause severe problems for the domestic workforce). Even large projects, such as the hillside terraces and drained fields that many archaeologists believe supported vast Classic period populations, could be built with domestic labor augmented, when necessary, by the help of neighbors or relatives. In other words, the basic costs of agricultural production were low, and the necessary skills and knowledge were widely available.
According to paragraph 2, which of the following practices did Maya farmers sometimes use in order to farm successfully?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AThey purchased metal tools from specialists.
BThey bought animals to attach to plows.
CThey used the skills and knowledge of specialists.
DThey received the help of neighbors or relatives.
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Another set of advantages derived from the nature of the principal staple crop-maize. On decent soils watered by adequate rainfall, maize typically produced larger yields per unit of cultivated land-perhaps twice as much-than Old World small grains such as wheat, barley, or oats grown by medieval European farmers. And because of the way these latter grains were sown, anywhere from one-sixth to one-third of the European annual crop had to be reserved for seed (except where irrigation was used). For maize the ratio of seed input to output was much more favorable, and because there were few domestic animals to feed, virtually all of the harvest could be consumed by humans.
The word “ adequate” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aessential
Bheavy
Cenough
Dregular
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Another set of advantages derived from the nature of the principal staple crop-maize. On decent soils watered by adequate rainfall, maize typically produced larger yields per unit of cultivated land-perhaps twice as much-than Old World small grains such as wheat, barley, or oats grown by medieval European farmers. And because of the way these latter grains were sown, anywhere from one-sixth to one-third of the European annual crop had to be reserved for seed (except where irrigation was used). For maize the ratio of seed input to output was much more favorable, and because there were few domestic animals to feed, virtually all of the harvest could be consumed by humans.
Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as an advantage of maize over Old World grains?
Negative Factual Information Questions否定事实信息题
AMore maize could be produced from the same amount of land.
BA larger proportion of maize went to feeding people rather than domestic animals.
CMaize required less water to grow.
DA smaller proportion of maize was saved for seed.
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On the other hand there were some severe limitations, one of which was caused by the history of land use itself. By the eighth century many of the most favorable parts of the Maya Lowlands had already been cultivated for hundreds of years. The population explosion of Late Classic times took place on local landscapes that no longer were natural in any sense of the word, because they had already long been humanized(degraded)by generations of use. Heavy episodes of deforestation and erosion have been documented for several regions as early as Preclassic times (2000 B.C.-200 A.D.), and there is strong evidence that some centers and regions experienced cycles of growth and abandonment long before the collapse. Even when overall populations were low, early farmers packed into any small region could obviously damage their environment severely. Early on, mobility seems to have been one of their solutions-people left for better lands elsewhere.
The word “ severely” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aindirectly
Bseriously
Cslowly
Dpermanently
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Another limitation involved technology. Without metal tools, complex machines, and sources of animal energy, Maya farmers could cultivate only very small amounts of land and they also had to schedule their work carefully to take into account the constraints of the seasons. Even where good land was abundant, Maya producers could accordingly generate only small per capita surpluses. Working diligently during a good year, a healthy farmer might cultivate 2-2.5 hectares(5-6.2 acres), which would yield roughly 1,000 kilograms per hectare(890 pounds per acre) of maize. If this land were of sufficient quality, it would yield twice as much food-around 2,000 kilograms(4,400 pounds)-as his family ate annually, after subtracting that amount reserved for next year’s seed stock and lost in storage. In other words, each family, if it had good land and worked hard, might generate only enough surplus food to support one other family of similar size-as opposed to perhaps five to six times the amount of food a family needed in the case of some Old World farmers.
Which of the following does paragraph 5 suggest about the amount of food produced by Maya farmers?
Inference Questions推理题
AMaya farmers were able to produce large amounts of food because each farmer produced large per capita surpluses.
BMaya farmers were able to produce large amounts of food because they could farm at any time of year.
CMaya farmers needed to use up their supply of seeds each year in order to produce enough food.
DMaya farmers could have produced more food if they had animals to help them farm the land.
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Which of the following best summarizes the argument of the passage?
Organization Questions组织结构题
AAlthough the Maya enjoyed some advantages in cultivating their land, the collapse of their civilization was caused in part by factors that interfered with their agricultural output.
BMaya civilization prospered as long as it did because of the success of its agriculture, which was made possible by technological advances and favorable environmental conditions.
CThe Maya agricultural output equaled that of Old World civilizations because of the Maya’s innovative cultivation of maize, which insured an adequate supply of seeds that could be stored and used for future harvests.
DSince Maya farmers had developed techniques that allowed them to survive in difficult conditions, it is likely that other economic factors played a more important role in the collapse of Maya civilization than farming practices did.
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On the other hand there were some severe limitations, one of which was caused by the history of land use itself. By the eighth century many of the most favorable parts of the Maya Lowlands had already been cultivated for hundreds of years. The population explosion of Late Classic times took place on local landscapes that no longer were natural in any sense of the word, because they had already long been humanized(degraded)by generations of use. [■]Heavy episodes of deforestation and erosion have been documented for several regions as early as Preclassic times (2000 B.C.-200 A.D.), and there is strong evidence that some centers and regions experienced cycles of growth and abandonment long before the collapse. [■]Even when overall populations were low, early farmers packed into any small region could obviously damage their environment severely. [■]Early on, mobility seems to have been one of their solutions-people left for better lands elsewhere.[■]
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
It was a matter of time before this strategy became ineffective as they ran out of unused land.
Insert Text Questions句子插入题
Where would the sentence best fit?Click on a square sentence to the passage.
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Maya agricultural practices had advantages and drawbacks that affected the history Maya civilization.
Prose Summary Questions概要小结题
Select 3 answers
AMaya agriculture was especially successful because of the simplicity of their farming practices and tools, as well as the high productivity of maize.
BMaya farmers cultivated lands that had already been used for hundreds of years and then abandoned them, and in the process caused a lot of damage to the environment.
CIn order to produce larger surpluses, Maya farmers planted wheat, barley, and oats in addition to the staple crop of maize.
DLarge projects such as hillside terraces and drained fields that were built to support agriculture caused illness and death among the population.
EDuring the Late Classic period, episodes of deforestation and erosion led to the establishment of new Maya centers with high population densities on previously unused lands.
FThe Maya did not have the technology to bring large areas of land under cultivation, and as a result they were less productive than their Old World counterparts.