Irrigation and Early Civilizations
For many analysts of early civilizations, the search for an explanation of how these cultures evolved in highly similar yet distinctive ways logically should begin with a consideration of these similarities and differences. What did these early civilizations share in the way of climate, ecology, demographics, or any other factors, that might explain why it was Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, China, Mesoamerica, and Andean South America that gave rise to the first great states and civilizations? If you knew nothing about the archaeology of early complex cultures and began to compare them, chances are you would be struck by the same facts that impressed Julian Steward, V. G. Childe, and other early scholars who studied the problem of cultural complexity origins. Evidently, most of these cultures developed in similar physical environments and were based on similar economies.
Perhaps the most obvious common denominator of ancient complex societies was extensive irrigation systems. Even today aerial photographs of Mesopotamia, Peru, and most other areas of early state formation clearly show the massive remnants of these ancient structures, and similar constructions were built by early chiefdoms”in such places as Hawaii and southwestern North America. This led some scholars to conclude that the construction and operation of extensive irrigation systems were at the heart of the origins of complex societies. A particularly influential proponent of this view was Karl Wittfogel, whose Oriental Despotism is a detailed excursion into comparative history and sociological analysis.
Wittfogel notes that the limiting factors on agriculture are soil conditions, temperature, and the availability of water. Of these, water is the most easily manipulated, but its weight and physical characteristics impose limitations on this manipulation. To divert water to agricultural fields requires canal systems, dams, and drainage constructions that can only be built efficiently with organized mass labor; and irrigation systems require enormous investments of labor and resources to operate, clean, and maintain them. In addition, these systems necessitate complex administration and communication, because crucial decisions have to be made about water allocation, construction and repairs, and crop harvesting and storage. Thus, a complex irrigation system under ancient conditions required cooperation and centralized hierarchical decision-making institutions.
Irrigation systems also have the intrinsic capacity to create another element in the process of the evolution of complex societies: wealth and status differences. Fields closer to main rivers are better drained and more easily irrigated, and possess a higher natural fertility; thus control of such lands would create immediate wealth differences. Correspondingly, wealth and status would most likely accrue to the elites of the decision-making hierarchies. Wittfogel concludes that irrigation-based agriculture has many other effects on a society. It encourages the development of writing and calendrical systems so that records can be kept of periods of annual flooding, agricultural production statistics, the amounts of products in storage, and the allocation of water. Construction of roads, palaces, and temples would also be encouraged, because the mobilization of labor for the canal works would be generalized to these other endeavors very easily, and roads would contribute to the movement of agricultural produce and to the communication required for efficient operation of the systems. The construction of temples and palaces would also serve to reinforce the position of the hierarchy. The creation of standing armies and defensive works would also likely follow, because irrigation systems are extremely valuable but not very portable, and they are easily damaged by neglect or intentional destruction.
Wittfogel’s hydraulic hypothesis stil has some currency, but there seem to be logical and empirical problems with his ideas as a general model of the origins of cultural complexity. Simple societies in several parts of the world have been observed operating extensive irrigation works with no perceptible despotic administrative systems or rapid increases in social complexity. More damaging to Wittfogel’s hypothesis is the scarcity of archaeological evidence of complex irrigation systems dating to before, or to the same time as, the appearance of monumental architecture, urbanism, and other reflections of increasing cultural complexity in Southwest Asia and perhaps other areas where complex societies appeared independently and early.
Nonetheless, the difficulties of dating irrigation canals, inadequate archeological samples, and other deficiencies of evidence mean we cannot conclude that irrigation was unimportant in virtually any case of early cultural complexity.
1
For many analysts of early civilizations, the search for an explanation of how these cultures evolved in highly similar yet distinctive ways logically should begin with a consideration of these similarities and differences. What did these early civilizations share in the way of climate, ecology, demographics, or any other factors, that might explain why it was Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, China, Mesoamerica, and Andean South America that gave rise to the first great states and civilizations? If you knew nothing about the archaeology of early complex cultures and began to compare them, chances are you would be struck by the same facts that impressed Julian Steward, V. G. Childe, and other early scholars who studied the problem of cultural complexity origins. Evidently, most of these cultures developed in similar physical environments and were based on similar economies.
In paragraph 1,the author suggests that nonspecialists who consider the first great states and civilizations would be impressed by which of the following?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AThe number of scholars studying the origins of the cultures
BThe relative lack of factual information about the cultures
CThe complexity of the social problems facing the cultures as they developed
DThe similarities in the economic and environmental situations of the cultures
2
Perhaps the most obvious common denominator of ancient complex societies was extensive irrigation systems. Even today aerial photographs of Mesopotamia, Peru, and most other areas of early state formation clearly show the massive remnants of these ancient structures, and similar constructions were built by early chiefdoms”in such places as Hawaii and southwestern North America. This led some scholars to conclude that the construction and operation of extensive irrigation systems were at the heart of the origins of complex societies. A particularly influential proponent of this view was Karl Wittfogel, whose Oriental Despotism is a detailed excursion into comparative history and sociological analysis.
Why does the author mention “Oriental Despotism” in the passage?
Rhetorical Purpose Questions修辞目的题
ATo show that Wittfogel misunderstood the development of power structures in early societies
BTo cite the source of the ideas about irrigation systems that will be discussed
CTo explain why Wittfogel conducted research into the sociology of other cultures
DTo begin a discussion of how Wittfogel’s views influenced modern comparative history and sociological analysis
3
Wittfogel notes that the limiting factors on agriculture are soil conditions, temperature, and the availability of water. Of these, water is the most easily manipulated, but its weight and physical characteristics impose limitations on this manipulation. To divert water to agricultural fields requires canal systems, dams, and drainage constructions that can only be built efficiently with organized mass labor; and irrigation systems require enormous investments of labor and resources to operate, clean, and maintain them. In addition, these systems necessitate complex administration and communication, because crucial decisions have to be made about water allocation, construction and repairs, and crop harvesting and storage. Thus, a complex irrigation system under ancient conditions required cooperation and centralized hierarchical decision-making institutions.
According to paragraph 3,all of the following are mentioned as necessary for the construction and maintenance of an irrigation system EXCEPT
Negative Factual Information Questions否定事实信息题
Amaintenance of the canals, dams, and drainage systems
Bdecisions by a central power structure
Cconstruction by many organized workers
Dpayment of money to a constantly increasing workforce
4
Irrigation systems also have the intrinsic capacity to create another element in the process of the evolution of complex societies: wealth and status differences. Fields closer to main rivers are better drained and more easily irrigated, and possess a higher natural fertility; thus control of such lands would create immediate wealth differences. Correspondingly, wealth and status would most likely accrue to the elites of the decision-making hierarchies. Wittfogel concludes that irrigation-based agriculture has many other effects on a society. It encourages the development of writing and calendrical systems so that records can be kept of periods of annual flooding, agricultural production statistics, the amounts of products in storage, and the allocation of water. Construction of roads, palaces, and temples would also be encouraged, because the mobilization of labor for the canal works would be generalized to these other endeavors very easily, and roads would contribute to the movement of agricultural produce and to the communication required for efficient operation of the systems. The construction of temples and palaces would also serve to reinforce the position of the hierarchy. The creation of standing armies and defensive works would also likely follow, because irrigation systems are extremely valuable but not very portable, and they are easily damaged by neglect or intentional destruction.
The word “intrinsic” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Anoted
Bsubstantial
Cshared
Dinherent
5
Irrigation systems also have the intrinsic capacity to create another element in the process of the evolution of complex societies: wealth and status differences. Fields closer to main rivers are better drained and more easily irrigated, and possess a higher natural fertility; thus control of such lands would create immediate wealth differences. Correspondingly, wealth and status would most likely accrue to the elites of the decision-making hierarchies. Wittfogel concludes that irrigation-based agriculture has many other effects on a society. It encourages the development of writing and calendrical systems so that records can be kept of periods of annual flooding, agricultural production statistics, the amounts of products in storage, and the allocation of water. Construction of roads, palaces, and temples would also be encouraged, because the mobilization of labor for the canal works would be generalized to these other endeavors very easily, and roads would contribute to the movement of agricultural produce and to the communication required for efficient operation of the systems. The construction of temples and palaces would also serve to reinforce the position of the hierarchy. The creation of standing armies and defensive works would also likely follow, because irrigation systems are extremely valuable but not very portable, and they are easily damaged by neglect or intentional destruction.
According to paragraph 4， Wittfogel suggested that al of the following were likely results of the introduction of irrigation-based agriculture EXCEPT the
Negative Factual Information Questions否定事实信息题
Aconstruction of roads and large buildings
Bdevelopment of writing to keep records of food production
Coccurrence of floods caused by dams placed on the main rivers
Dcreation of calendars to keep track of yearly flooding
6
Irrigation systems also have the intrinsic capacity to create another element in the process of the evolution of complex societies: wealth and status differences. Fields closer to main rivers are better drained and more easily irrigated, and possess a higher natural fertility; thus control of such lands would create immediate wealth differences. Correspondingly, wealth and status would most likely accrue to the elites of the decision-making hierarchies. Wittfogel concludes that irrigation-based agriculture has many other effects on a society. It encourages the development of writing and calendrical systems so that records can be kept of periods of annual flooding, agricultural production statistics, the amounts of products in storage, and the allocation of water. Construction of roads, palaces, and temples would also be encouraged, because the mobilization of labor for the canal works would be generalized to these other endeavors very easily, and roads would contribute to the movement of agricultural produce and to the communication required for efficient operation of the systems. The construction of temples and palaces would also serve to reinforce the position of the hierarchy. The creation of standing armies and defensive works would also likely follow, because irrigation systems are extremely valuable but not very portable, and they are easily damaged by neglect or intentional destruction.
According to paragraph 4， one way in which people would have acquired riches and social importance was by
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
Acreating irrigation systems that could be moved from one area to another
Bowning more land than other people
Cworking harder than other people on irrigation projects
Dcontrolling land near sources of water
7
Irrigation systems also have the intrinsic capacity to create another element in the process of the evolution of complex societies: wealth and status differences. Fields closer to main rivers are better drained and more easily irrigated, and possess a higher natural fertility; thus control of such lands would create immediate wealth differences. Correspondingly, wealth and status would most likely accrue to the elites of the decision-making hierarchies. Wittfogel concludes that irrigation-based agriculture has many other effects on a society. It encourages the development of writing and calendrical systems so that records can be kept of periods of annual flooding, agricultural production statistics, the amounts of products in storage, and the allocation of water. Construction of roads, palaces, and temples would also be encouraged, because the mobilization of labor for the canal works would be generalized to these other endeavors very easily, and roads would contribute to the movement of agricultural produce and to the communication required for efficient operation of the systems. The construction of temples and palaces would also serve to reinforce the position of the hierarchy. The creation of standing armies and defensive works would also likely follow, because irrigation systems are extremely valuable but not very portable, and they are easily damaged by neglect or intentional destruction.
According to paragraph 4， for which of the following reasons would an early civilization need to build an army?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
ATo protect the position of the elite
BTo secure the vital water resources
CTo mobilize and control the central labor force
DTo increase efficiency in operating the irrigation system
8
Nonetheless, the difficulties of dating irrigation canals, inadequate archeological samples, and other deficiencies of evidence mean we cannot conclude that irrigation was unimportant in virtually any case of early cultural complexity.
Paragraph 6 suggests which of the following about the results of research on irrigation and early civilizations?
Inference Questions推理题
AArchaeologists have discovered some, but not all, of the dates and causes of cultural complexity.
BWittfogel’s hypothesis about irrigation and early sjeties has been completely disproved by modern archaeologists.
CIt is possible to conclude that irrigation may have had some role in the development of early civilizations.
DNew methods of dating irrigation systems and collecting samples are likely to disprove Wittfogel’s theory.
9
[■]Wittfogel’s hydraulic hypothesis stil has some currency, but there seem to be logical and empirical problems with his ideas as a general model of the origins of cultural complexity.[■] Simple societies in several parts of the world have been observed operating extensive irrigation works with no perceptible despotic administrative systems or rapid increases in social complexity. [■]More damaging to Wittfogel’s hypothesis is the scarcity of archaeological evidence of complex irrigation systems dating to before, or to the same time as, the appearance of monumental architecture, urbanism, and other reflections of increasing cultural complexity in Southwest Asia and perhaps other areas where complex societies appeared independently and early.[■]
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
However, over the years, scholars’ opinions about irrigation’s role in the emergence of early civilizations have changed.
Insert Text Questions句子插入题
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
10
Scholars continue to analyze the role of irrigation in the development of complex early civilizations.
Prose Summary Questions概要小结题
Select 3 answers
AKarl Wittfogel was the first to note that the first great civilizations emerged in locations as distant as Mesopotamia, China, and Mesoamerica.
BAccording to Wittfogel, the construction and maintenance of extensive irigation systems were major elements in the evolution of complex civilizations
CIrrigation-based agriculture may have led to the development of cities, wealth and class differences,and armies in evolving civilizations.
DThe evidence used by scholars to prove that early civilizations had similar kinds of irrigation systems includes aerial photographs.
EBecause water is a resource that is easily manipulated, the development of extensive irrigation systems probably started before the development of civilization.
FWittfogel’s theory has been challenged by evidence that some complex civilizations appeared independently of the development of extensive irrigation systems.
