Why Did Social stratification Emerge
Without exception, modern industrial and postindustrial societies are socially stratified-that is, they contain social groups such as families, classes, or ethnic groups that have unequal access to important advantages such as economic resources, power, and prestige. Based on archaeological evidence, it seems the emergence of social stratification was connected with the advent of agriculture roughly 10,000 years ago. Until then, all human societies depended entirely on food they hunted, gathered, and/or fished, and so anthropologists are reasonably sure that higher levels of stratification emerged relatively recently in human history. Archaeological sites dating before 8,000 years ago do not show extensive evidence of inequality. Houses do not appear to vary much in size or content, and different communities of the same culture are similar in size. Signs of inequality appear first in the Middle East about 2,000 years after agriculture emerged in that region. Inequality in burial suggests inequality in life. Particularly telling are unequal child burials. It is unlikely that children could achieve high status by their own achievements. So, when archaeologists find statues and ornaments only in some children’s tombs, as at the 7,500-year-old site of Tell es-Sawwan, the grave goods suggest that those children belonged to a higher-ranking family or a higher class.
Why did social stratification develop in the first place? Some scholars stress the importance of surplus production that resulted from increased agricultural activity. Others stress the degree to which wealth can be transmitted across generations. With regard to surpluses, the cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins suggested that surpluses would result in greater scope and complexity of the system of distributing goods, enhancing the status of chiefs (leaders) as agents for redistributing goods. Gradually, this would give the chiefs more control over rerources and ultimately more power. The comparative sociologist Gerhard Lenski, too, argued that production of a surplus is the stimulus in the development of stratification, but he focused primarily on the conflict that arises over control of that surplus. Lenski concluded that the distribution of the surplus will be determined on the basis of power. Thus, inequalities in power promote unequal access to economic resources and simultaneously give rise to inequalities in privilege and prestige. A broader argument is that a surplus may lead to some advantages of one subgroup over another, such as more people to support a stronger military force, or more knowledge that could lead to the development of specialized, productive technology.
The surplus theories of Sahlins and Lenski do not really address why people would produce surpluses or why redistributors or leaders will want, or be able, to acquire greater control over resources. Sahlins later amended his theory to suggest the reverse-that leaders may encourage the development of a surplus to enhance their prestige. But even if that were so, prestige enhancement is not the same as wealth enhancement. After all,the redistributors or leaders in many nonindustrial societies do not have greater wealth than others, and custom seems to keep things that way. One suggestion is that, as long as followers have mobility, they can reject leaders they do not like by moving away from them. But when people start to make more permanent investments in land or technology (such as irrigation systems), they are more likely to put up with a leader’s elevated status in exchange for protection. Another suggestion is that access to economic resources becomes unequal only when there is population pressure-increased competition for resources resulting from population growth. Such pressure may be what induces redistributors to try to keep more land and other resources for themselves and their families.
The anthropologist C. K. Meek offered a modern example of how population pressure in northern Nigeria may have led to economic stratification. At one time, a tribal member could obtain the right to use land by asking permission of the chief and presenting him with a token gift in recognition of his higher status. But, by 1921， the reduction in the amount of available land had led to a system under which applicants offered the chief large payments for scarce land. As a result of these payments, farms came to be regarded as private property, and unequal access to such property became institutionalized.
1
Without exception, modern industrial and postindustrial societies are socially stratified-that is, they contain social groups such as families, classes, or ethnic groups that have unequal access to important advantages such as economic resources, power, and prestige. Based on archaeological evidence, it seems the emergence of social stratification was connected with the advent of agriculture roughly 10,000 years ago. Until then, all human societies depended entirely on food they hunted, gathered, and/or fished, and so anthropologists are reasonably sure that higher levels of stratification emerged relatively recently in human history. Archaeological sites dating before 8,000 years ago do not show extensive evidence of inequality. Houses do not appear to vary much in size or content, and different communities of the same culture are similar in size. Signs of inequality appear first in the Middle East about 2,000 years after agriculture emerged in that region. Inequality in burial suggests inequality in life. Particularly telling are unequal child burials. It is unlikely that children could achieve high status by their own achievements. So, when archaeologists find statues and ornaments only in some children’s tombs, as at the 7,500-year-old site of Tell es-Sawwan, the grave goods suggest that those children belonged to a higher-ranking family or a higher class.
The word “advent in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aspread
Bpractice
Cinfluence
Darrival
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Without exception, modern industrial and postindustrial societies are socially stratified-that is, they contain social groups such as families, classes, or ethnic groups that have unequal access to important advantages such as economic resources, power, and prestige. Based on archaeological evidence, it seems the emergence of social stratification was connected with the advent of agriculture roughly 10,000 years ago. Until then, all human societies depended entirely on food they hunted, gathered, and/or fished, and so anthropologists are reasonably sure that higher levels of stratification emerged relatively recently in human history. Archaeological sites dating before 8,000 years ago do not show extensive evidence of inequality. Houses do not appear to vary much in size or content, and different communities of the same culture are similar in size. Signs of inequality appear first in the Middle East about 2,000 years after agriculture emerged in that region. Inequality in burial suggests inequality in life. Particularly telling are unequal child burials. It is unlikely that children could achieve high status by their own achievements. So, when archaeologists find statues and ornaments only in some children’s tombs, as at the 7,500-year-old site of Tell es-Sawwan, the grave goods suggest that those children belonged to a higher-ranking family or a higher class.
According to paragraph 1, the contents of graves at Tell es-Sawwan suggest to anthropologists that
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
Asome people had high social status without having earned it
Bchildren were more respected in the Middle East than in other ancient societies
Cchildren participated in agriculture in ancient times
Dinequalities in status were common earlier than was once thought
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Why did social stratification develop in the first place? Some scholars stress the importance of surplus production that resulted from increased agricultural activity. Others stress the degree to which wealth can be transmitted across generations. With regard to surpluses, the cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins suggested that surpluses would result in greater scope and complexity of the system of distributing goods, enhancing the status of chiefs (leaders) as agents for redistributing goods. Gradually, this would give the chiefs more control over rerources and ultimately more power. The comparative sociologist Gerhard Lenski, too, argued that production of a surplus is the stimulus in the development of stratification, but he focused primarily on the conflict that arises over control of that surplus. Lenski concluded that the distribution of the surplus will be determined on the basis of power. Thus, inequalities in power promote unequal access to economic resources and simultaneously give rise to inequalities in privilege and prestige. A broader argument is that a surplus may lead to some advantages of one subgroup over another, such as more people to support a stronger military force, or more knowledge that could lead to the development of specialized, productive technology.
The word “simultaneously” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aalmost certainly
Bsimilarly
Cas a result
Dat the same time
4
Why did social stratification develop in the first place? Some scholars stress the importance of surplus production that resulted from increased agricultural activity. Others stress the degree to which wealth can be transmitted across generations. With regard to surpluses, the cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins suggested that surpluses would result in greater scope and complexity of the system of distributing goods, enhancing the status of chiefs (leaders) as agents for redistributing goods. Gradually, this would give the chiefs more control over rerources and ultimately more power. The comparative sociologist Gerhard Lenski, too, argued that production of a surplus is the stimulus in the development of stratification, but he focused primarily on the conflict that arises over control of that surplus. Lenski concluded that the distribution of the surplus will be determined on the basis of power. Thus, inequalities in power promote unequal access to economic resources and simultaneously give rise to inequalities in privilege and prestige. A broader argument is that a surplus may lead to some advantages of one subgroup over another, such as more people to support a stronger military force, or more knowledge that could lead to the development of specialized, productive technology.
According to paragraph 2, Marshall Sahlins theorized that chiefs fined power because
Vocabulary Questions词汇题
Aleaders needed to control agricultural production
Bsurpluses were available to distribute among people
Cwealth was passed down across generations
Dthere were conflicts among agents who redistributed goods
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Why did social stratification develop in the first place? Some scholars stress the importance of surplus production that resulted from increased agricultural activity. Others stress the degree to which wealth can be transmitted across generations. With regard to surpluses, the cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins suggested that surpluses would result in greater scope and complexity of the system of distributing goods, enhancing the status of chiefs (leaders) as agents for redistributing goods. Gradually, this would give the chiefs more control over rerources and ultimately more power. The comparative sociologist Gerhard Lenski, too, argued that production of a surplus is the stimulus in the development of stratification, but he focused primarily on the conflict that arises over control of that surplus. Lenski concluded that the distribution of the surplus will be determined on the basis of power. Thus, inequalities in power promote unequal access to economic resources and simultaneously give rise to inequalities in privilege and prestige. A broader argument is that a surplus may lead to some advantages of one subgroup over another, such as more people to support a stronger military force, or more knowledge that could lead to the development of specialized, productive technology.
Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 to be a central point of Gerhard Lenski’s theory?
Inference Questions推理题
APeople with power obtained more of the surpluses from agricultural activity than others did.
BConflicts caused some previously privileged social groups to lose power.
CInequality led to an increasing number of conflicts.
DSubgroups that lacked a strong military force invested their economic resources in productive technology.
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The surplus theories of Sahlins and Lenski do not really address why people would produce surpluses or why redistributors or leaders will want, or be able, to acquire greater control over resources. Sahlins later amended his theory to suggest the reverse-that leaders may encourage the development of a surplus to enhance their prestige. But even if that were so, prestige enhancement is not the same as wealth enhancement. After all,the redistributors or leaders in many nonindustrial societies do not have greater wealth than others, and custom seems to keep things that way. One suggestion is that, as long as followers have mobility, they can reject leaders they do not like by moving away from them. But when people start to make more permanent investments in land or technology (such as irrigation systems), they are more likely to put up with a leader’s elevated status in exchange for protection. Another suggestion is that access to economic resources becomes unequal only when there is population pressure-increased competition for resources resulting from population growth. Such pressure may be what induces redistributors to try to keep more land and other resources for themselves and their families.
Why does the author provide the information that “the redistributors or leaders in many nonindustrial societies do not have greater wealth than others”?
Rhetorical Purpose Questions修辞目的题
ATo challenge the amended version of Sahlins’s theory
BTo emphasize the great importance of the theories of Sahlins and Lenski
CTo suggest that the customs of nonindustrial societies prevent the enhancement of prestige
DTo explain why redistributors and leaders wanted to acquire control over resources
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The surplus theories of Sahlins and Lenski do not really address why people would produce surpluses or why redistributors or leaders will want, or be able, to acquire greater control over resources. Sahlins later amended his theory to suggest the reverse-that leaders may encourage the development of a surplus to enhance their prestige. But even if that were so, prestige enhancement is not the same as wealth enhancement. After all,the redistributors or leaders in many nonindustrial societies do not have greater wealth than others, and custom seems to keep things that way. One suggestion is that, as long as followers have mobility, they can reject leaders they do not like by moving away from them. But when people start to make more permanent investments in land or technology (such as irrigation systems), they are more likely to put up with a leader’s elevated status in exchange for protection. Another suggestion is that access to economic resources becomes unequal only when there is population pressure-increased competition for resources resulting from population growth. Such pressure may be what induces redistributors to try to keep more land and other resources for themselves and their families.
According to paragraph 3, investments such as irrigation systems may have made people LESS likely to
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
Awillingly share surpluses with their leaders
Bseek protection from their leaders
Cmove away from leaders they did not like
Dkeep land and other resources for themselves and their families
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The anthropologist C. K. Meek offered a modern example of how population pressure in northern Nigeria may have led to economic stratification. At one time, a tribal member could obtain the right to use land by asking permission of the chief and presenting him with a token gift in recognition of his higher status. But, by 1921， the reduction in the amount of available land had led to a system under which applicants offered the chief large payments for scarce land. As a result of these payments, farms came to be regarded as private property, and unequal access to such property became institutionalized.
According to paragraph 4, which of the following was true about farmers in northern Nigeria by the year 1921?
Factual Information Questions事实信息题
AThey had sold their land in exchange for large payments
BThey had lost their rights to use the chiefs land
CThey had begun to think of the land they were using as their own property.
DThey no longer needed permission from the chief to obtain new land.
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Why did social stratification develop in the first place? Some scholars stress the importance of surplus production that resulted from increased agricultural activity. Others stress the degree to which wealth can be transmitted across generations. With regard to surpluses, the cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins suggested that surpluses would result in greater scope and complexity of the system of distributing goods, enhancing the status of chiefs (leaders) as agents for redistributing goods. Gradually, this would give the chiefs more control over rerources and ultimately more power. The comparative sociologist Gerhard Lenski, too, argued that production of a surplus is the stimulus in the development of stratification, but he focused primarily on the conflict that arises over control of that surplus. [■]Lenski concluded that the distribution of the surplus will be determined on the basis of power. [■]Thus, inequalities in power promote unequal access to economic resources and simultaneously give rise to inequalities in privilege and prestige. [■]A broader argument is that a surplus may lead to some advantages of one subgroup over another, such as more people to support a stronger military force, or more knowledge that could lead to the development of specialized, productive technology.[■]
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
This may not be the only way that surpluses can increase certain people’s power.
Insert Text Questions句子插入题
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
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There is debate about why and how social stratification first appeared.
Prose Summary Questions概要小结题
Select 3 answers
AScholars have proposed various theories for why industrial and postindustrial societies are generally more socially stratified than agricultural societies are.
BSupporting a strong military force required the development of specialized technology, and this specialization may have contributed to social stratification.
CThe chiefs in some cultures were unable to increase their control over economic resources, possibly because the people who distributed surpluses had greater access to these resources than chiefs did.
DThe oldest evidence of social stratification is found in the Middle East at archaeological sites where people practiced agriculture.
ESome scholars believe that social stratification was the result of power that individuals or groups obtained from surpluses, but their theories leave some questions unanswered.
FCompetition for land or other resources is one factor that may increase social stratification, as illustrated by developments in modern northern Nigeria.
