Both the ancient Maya of Mesoamerica and the ancient Egyptians built pyramids, raising the question of whether the Maya somehow learned to build pyramids from the Egyptians. After all, the Egyptian pyramids were indubitably earlier, and Mayan and Egyptian pyramids both served ritual purposes. Conversely, artificial hills and mounds have been built for so many different purposes by so many different people that they were no doubt independently invented many times. Moreover, the different scale and ritual purposes of the Mayan and Egyptian pyramids argue strongly against diffusion-the spreading, rather than the independent invention, of cultural practices. The problem of determining whether a particular cultural practice is learned or invented, a challenge that recurs throughout history, is illustrated by the debate about the origins of agriculture.
Most authorities now agree that agriculture began in at least seven independent centers over the period between 10,000 and 4,000 years ago. Determining the degree of independence, however, can be a problem. Between relatively nearby centers such as Mexico and the southern United States, stimulus diffusion might have been possible. Stimulus diffusion occurs when the principle behind a particular practice is transferred even though the particular practice is not. For example, the knowledge that plants could be domesticated could have spread from Mexico to northern areas even though different plants would have been domesticated in the north because of its different wild species. But there is no evidence that stimulus diffusion did take place in this instance. On the basis of present knowledge, it is safe to say that the domestication of plants and animals was independently invented in widely scattered parts of the world.
One notable fact about the data is that in the long run of human habitation on Earth, these independent centers should have appeared within a temporal range as narrow as about six millennia. Long before 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens had moved out of Africa and come to live on all the major continents, but if plant domestication took place earlier, it has been lost to the historical record. Plant domestication, for that matter, is not as simple a process as might appear at first glance. Over the millennia, people have harvested certain wild grasses, controlled weeds, encouraged wild plants to multiply, or planted seeds, but that is not true domestication. To be domesticated in the technical sense, a plant or animal has to be at least a new variety, often a new species, that can no longer reproduce itself without human assistance.
Maize is a good example. The original wild maize was a grass in Mexico, teosinte, that had a seed spike with a single row of kernels, each enclosed in a hard case. As the grain ripened, the spike shattered, scattering the seeds and giving them an opportunity to produce a new plant each year. Domestic maize seeds are heavier and less protected, and they do not scatter. An unattended cornfield will often produce a few volunteer stalks a second year, but without human care, the plant would become extinct after only a few years. With wide variations and obvious exceptions, such as feral cats and dogs (domesticated cats and dogs that have returned to the wild), the result would be the same for other domesticated plants and animals if left untended.
The most common explanation for the delay of plant domestication until just 10,000 years ago is that biological changes following the last Ice Age produced varieties of plants suitable for domestication in several parts of the world. It is also probable that population densities among hunters and foragers in several places made existing resources scarce enough to stimulate the development of agriculture.
The list of domesticated plants and animals in the seven centers of early agriculture includes almost no repeated examples. Each plant or animal species was probably domesticated only once, and each agricultural center domesticated its own range of plants and animals. The use of these domesticated species spread around the world through diffusion by those with the means to travel -by caravan across the Silk Road (a historical network of trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass)or by sea, carried by Polynesians or European mariners-but they were accepted or rejected by farmers who had the chance to use them.
1
Both the ancient Maya of Mesoamerica and the ancient Egyptians built pyramids, raising the question of whether the Maya somehow learned to build pyramids from the Egyptians. After all, the Egyptian pyramids were indubitably earlier, and Mayan and Egyptian pyramids both served ritual purposes. Conversely, artificial hills and mounds have been built for so many different purposes by so many different people that they were no doubt independently invented many times. Moreover, the different scale and ritual purposes of the Mayan and Egyptian pyramids argue strongly against diffusion-the spreading, rather than the independent invention, of cultural practices. The problem of determining whether a particular cultural practice is learned or invented, a challenge that recurs throughout history, is illustrated by the debate about the origins of agriculture.
Why does the author point out that artificial hills and mounds have been built for “many different purposes” and by“many different people”?
ATo argue that not all Mayan and Egyptian pyramids served ritual purposes
BTo challenge the idea that the Maya learned to build pyramids from the Egyptians
CTo provide evidence that some cultural practices became widespread through diffusion
DTo explain why it is difficult to tell whether the cultural practice of pyramid building arose independently
2
Both the ancient Maya of Mesoamerica and the ancient Egyptians built pyramids, raising the question of whether the Maya somehow learned to build pyramids from the Egyptians. After all, the Egyptian pyramids were indubitably earlier, and Mayan and Egyptian pyramids both served ritual purposes. Conversely, artificial hills and mounds have been built for so many different purposes by so many different people that they were no doubt independently invented many times. Moreover, the different scale and ritual purposes of the Mayan and Egyptian pyramids argue strongly against diffusion-the spreading, rather than the independent invention, of cultural practices. The problem of determining whether a particular cultural practice is learned or invented, a challenge that recurs throughout history, is illustrated by the debate about the origins of agriculture.
The word“recurs”in the passage is closest in meaning to
Aevolves
Bcreates debate
Crepeats itself
Dexpands significantly
3
Most authorities now agree that agriculture began in at least seven independent centers over the period between 10,000 and 4,000 years ago. Determining the degree of independence, however, can be a problem. Between relatively nearby centers such as Mexico and the southern United States, stimulus diffusion might have been possible. Stimulus diffusion occurs when the principle behind a particular practice is transferred even though the particular practice is not. For example, the knowledge that plants could be domesticated could have spread from Mexico to northern areas even though different plants would have been domesticated in the north because of its different wild species. But there is no evidence that stimulus diffusion did take place in this instance. On the basis of present knowledge, it is safe to say that the domestication of plants and animals was independently invented in widely scattered parts of the world.
According to paragraph 2， current knowledge indicates that agriculture most likely developed
Ain areas located north of present-day Mexico
Bin fewer than seven separate cultural centers
Cin different agricultural centers independently
Dthrough stimulus diffusion from a specific location to other areas
4
One notable fact about the data is that in the long run of human habitation on Earth, these independent centers should have appeared within a temporal range as narrow as about six millennia. Long before 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens had moved out of Africa and come to live on all the major continents, but if plant domestication took place earlier, it has been lost to the historical record. Plant domestication, for that matter, is not as simple a process as might appear at first glance. Over the millennia, people have harvested certain wild grasses, controlled weeds, encouraged wild plants to multiply, or planted seeds, but that is not true domestication. To be domesticated in the technical sense, a plant or animal has to be at least a new variety, often a new species, that can no longer reproduce itself without human assistance.
Paragraph 3 supports which of the following statements about the invention of agriculture?
AAgriculture was practiced on other continents before it was practiced in Africa
BAgriculture first began to be practiced more than 10,000 years ago.
CAgriculture began to be practiced in various places during a relatively short period of time.
DIt is unclear which plants were the first to be domesticated.
5
One notable fact about the data is that in the long run of human habitation on Earth, these independent centers should have appeared within a temporal range as narrow as about six millennia. Long before 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens had moved out of Africa and come to live on all the major continents, but if plant domestication took place earlier, it has been lost to the historical record. Plant domestication, for that matter, is not as simple a process as might appear at first glance. Over the millennia, people have harvested certain wild grasses, controlled weeds, encouraged wild plants to multiply, or planted seeds, but that is not true domestication. To be domesticated in the technical sense, a plant or animal has to be at least a new variety, often a new species, that can no longer reproduce itself without human assistance.
Paragraph 3 suggests that some agricultural activities such as harvesting wild grasses and planting seeds are not considered true domestication because those practices
Acreate new species that can reproduce in a variety of ways
Bresult in plants that require human assistance to reproduce
Crequire no technical agricultural knowledge
Ddo not result in new varieties
6
Maize is a good example. The original wild maize was a grass in Mexico, teosinte, that had a seed spike with a single row of kernels, each enclosed in a hard case. As the grain ripened, the spike shattered, scattering the seeds and giving them an opportunity to produce a new plant each year. Domestic maize seeds are heavier and less protected, and they do not scatter. An unattended cornfield will often produce a few volunteer stalks a second year, but without human care, the plant would become extinct after only a few years. With wide variations and obvious exceptions, such as feral cats and dogs (domesticated cats and dogs that have returned to the wild), the result would be the same for other domesticated plants and animals if left untended.
According to paragraph 4， feral cats and dogs differ from other types of domesticated species in that
Athey were domesticated much earlier
Bthey are larger in number
Cthey were easily domesticated by humans
Dthey are capable of surviving without human care
7
The most common explanation for the delay of plant domestication until just 10,000 years ago is that biological changes following the last Ice Age produced varieties of plants suitable for domestication in several parts of the world. It is also probable that population densities among hunters and foragers in several places made existing resources scarce enough to stimulate the development of agriculture.
According to paragraph 5， a possible reason that plant domestication was delayed until after the last Ice Age is that
Apopulation growth after the last Ice Age resulted in the development of advanced tools by hunters and foragers
Bclimate conditions associated with the last Ice Age destroyed many wild plant species
Cdifferent species of plants that could be domesticated were produced after the last Ice Age
Dhunters and foragers moved around more often after the last Ice Age
8
The list of domesticated plants and animals in the seven centers of early agriculture includes almost no repeated examples. Each plant or animal species was probably domesticated only once, and each agricultural center domesticated its own range of plants and animals. The use of these domesticated species spread around the world through diffusion by those with the means to travel -by caravan across the Silk Road (a historical network of trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass)or by sea, carried by Polynesians or European mariners-but they were accepted or rejected by farmers who had the chance to use them.
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
ATravelers spread domesticated species to farmers around the world, who sometimes used them and sometimes did not.
BTravelers learned how to domesticate species from farmers around the world and brought this knowledge back for use.
CThe two modes of travel that contributed most to the spread of domesticated species were travel across the Silk Road and by sea.
DPolynesians and Europeans were the first to domesticate and spread species, though farmers in other parts of the world could not use those species.
9
Maize is a good example. The original wild maize was a grass in Mexico, teosinte, that had a seed spike with a single row of kernels, each enclosed in a hard case. [■]As the grain ripened, the spike shattered, scattering the seeds and giving them an opportunity to produce a new plant each year. [■]Domestic maize seeds are heavier and less protected, and they do not scatter. [■]An unattended cornfield will often produce a few volunteer stalks a second year, but without human care, the plant would become extinct after only a few years.[■] With wide variations and obvious exceptions, such as feral cats and dogs (domesticated cats and dogs that have returned to the wild), the result would be the same for other domesticated plants and animals if left untended.
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
These contrasting characteristics have important implications for productivity.
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
10
There has been debate about the origins of agriculture.
ADifferences between Egyptian and Mayan religious and cultural practices suggest that the two societies independently developed agriculture.
BIt is likely that plant domestication first took place when humans moved out of Africa to new continents and encountered unfamiliar plant species.
CFor thousands of years, humans tended wild plants to increase their productivity, but plants were not domesticated until they became unable to reproduce without human assistance.
DAlthough it has been proposed that plant domestication may have spread through stimulus diffusion, evidence indicates that agriculture arose independently in at least seven centers.
EMaize was the first agricultural crop in modern-day Mexico, and knowledge of how to domesticate it spread to nearby areas through the process of stimulus diffusion.
FBiological changes that followed the last Ice Age and changes in human habitation patterns help to explain why agriculture emerged just 10,000 years ago and not earlier.
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