In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Aztec empire stretched across what is now central and southern Mexico and included both highlands and lowlands. On relatively flat lowlands and in some shallow lake beds, irrigation agriculture was the rule. In these areas, floodwater irrigation systems were constructed over large areas. The soils were fortified and replenished by nutrients and soil particles carried in the water; thus, the need for fallowing (leaving land uncultivated for a time) was eliminated. Irrigation was far more intensive than the fallowing technique, providing greater surpluses and supporting larger populations. Crop rotation and fertilizers may have been used to further increase yields. Lands with easy access to natural springs could be irrigated permanently with spring water. Springs were numerous in the southern part of the Basin of Mexico, and vast systems of irrigation agriculture were concentrated there. These permanent systems, along with floodwater networks favorably situated near springs, could draw on water supplies prior to the onset of the rainy season. Crops could be planted early and mature with certainty before the frost season began. Reliability of production, therefore, was relatively high.
The most intensive form of irrigation agriculture was the chinampas. Chinampas were highly productive plots of land claimed from the shallow beds of freshwater lakes. These long, rectangular fields ranged in size from two to four meters wide and twenty to forty meters long and rose about one meter above water level. Misnamed “floating gardens,” chinampas are still cultivated in and around Xochimilco and neighboring cities and are a popular tourist attraction. A chinampa was constructed by piling alternating layers of vegetation and mud in shallow areas of lakes. The parcel was held secure at first by posts, and later, when the plot was established, by the roots of willow trees planted at the corners and along the sides. The entire plot thus served as a deep, humus-filled foundation for continuous cultivation. It was bordered by canals and walkways, and dipping into an adjacent canal provided irrigation. Although nutrients constantly replenished the soil in this manner, other fertilizers, crop rotation, and multiple cropping were probably used to increase production.
A variety of crops were grown on chinampas, including maize, beans, chiles, amaranth, tomatoes, and flowers. There are good indications that, like today, the chinampa farmers planted their seeds in small seedbeds, allowed them to germinate there, and then transplanted them throughout the chinampa. Maize, apparently, was the only crop that could bypass this stage. The seedbed technique assured greater returns, since only germinated plants were transplanted. Furthermore, it allowed the cultivator some overlap in cropping: while one crop was about to be harvested, another could be germinating in the seedbeds. This would have reduced the intervals between croppings. Today, and probably in the sixteenth century, seven different crops are possible on any chinampa annually.
While the intensiveness, reliability, and versatility of this system cannot be overemphasized, it must be placed in the context of the population it supported. After extensive investigations of sixteenth-century documents, Edward Calnek has concluded that: “The larger chinampa holdings would normally have provided no more than 15 percent of family subsistence income; in a large number of cases, the actual contribution must be estimated at a fraction of 1 percent of family needs. With respect to the smaller sites, it is difficult to imagine why chinampas were maintained at all.” Calnek provides an answer by suggesting that the value of the plots lay less in their overall productive yields than in their specialization in the production of fresh vegetables. Flowers also were an important perishable that could be produced on the urban chinampas; hardly a religious festival or political feast took place without an abundance of aromatic flowers. In these areas, a family may have met subsistence needs through advantageous marketplace exchanges of their specialized products or through allocations from the state. Outside the densely populated urban areas, chinampas plots were generally larger and resident families smaller. Such a family could probably not only fully support itself from its own chinampas production but also produce sizeable surpluses. This applied particularly to the southern lakeshores of the Basin of Mexico, around Xochimilco and Chalco, which had the greatest number of chinampas.
1
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Aztec empire stretched across what is now central and southern Mexico and included both highlands and lowlands. On relatively flat lowlands and in some shallow lake beds, irrigation agriculture was the rule. In these areas, floodwater irrigation systems were constructed over large areas. The soils were fortified and replenished by nutrients and soil particles carried in the water; thus, the need for fallowing (leaving land uncultivated for a time) was eliminated. Irrigation was far more intensive than the fallowing technique, providing greater surpluses and supporting larger populations. Crop rotation and fertilizers may have been used to further increase yields. Lands with easy access to natural springs could be irrigated permanently with spring water. Springs were numerous in the southern part of the Basin of Mexico, and vast systems of irrigation agriculture were concentrated there. These permanent systems, along with floodwater networks favorably situated near springs, could draw on water supplies prior to the onset of the rainy season. Crops could be planted early and mature with certainty before the frost season began. Reliability of production, therefore, was relatively high.
The word “concentrated” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Amaintained
Bin continuous operation
Cpresent together in large numbers
Dconstructed
2
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Aztec empire stretched across what is now central and southern Mexico and included both highlands and lowlands. On relatively flat lowlands and in some shallow lake beds, irrigation agriculture was the rule. In these areas, floodwater irrigation systems were constructed over large areas. The soils were fortified and replenished by nutrients and soil particles carried in the water; thus, the need for fallowing (leaving land uncultivated for a time) was eliminated. Irrigation was far more intensive than the fallowing technique, providing greater surpluses and supporting larger populations. Crop rotation and fertilizers may have been used to further increase yields. Lands with easy access to natural springs could be irrigated permanently with spring water. Springs were numerous in the southern part of the Basin of Mexico, and vast systems of irrigation agriculture were concentrated there. These permanent systems, along with floodwater networks favorably situated near springs, could draw on water supplies prior to the onset of the rainy season. Crops could be planted early and mature with certainty before the frost season began. Reliability of production, therefore, was relatively high.
According to paragraph 1, the use of irrigation agriculture allowed the Aztecs to have greater control over
Ahow much their crops benefited from the rainy season
Bwhen their crops reached maturity
Chow often their crops had to be rotated
Dhow much water was present in natural springs
3
The most intensive form of irrigation agriculture was the chinampas. Chinampas were highly productive plots of land claimed from the shallow beds of freshwater lakes. These long, rectangular fields ranged in size from two to four meters wide and twenty to forty meters long and rose about one meter above water level. Misnamed “floating gardens,” chinampas are still cultivated in and around Xochimilco and neighboring cities and are a popular tourist attraction. A chinampa was constructed by piling alternating layers of vegetation and mud in shallow areas of lakes. The parcel was held secure at first by posts, and later, when the plot was established, by the roots of willow trees planted at the corners and along the sides. The entire plot thus served as a deep, humus-filled foundation for continuous cultivation. It was bordered by canals and walkways, and dipping into an adjacent canal provided irrigation. Although nutrients constantly replenished the soil in this manner, other fertilizers, crop rotation, and multiple cropping were probably used to increase production.
According to paragraph 2, all of the following were characteristics of he Aztecs’ chinampas EXCEPT
AThey were long and narrow
BTheir soil was held in place in part by tree roots.
CTheir layers of vegetation and mud had to be replaced every year.
DThey were irrigated with water from canals that ran along their sides.
4
The most intensive form of irrigation agriculture was the chinampas. Chinampas were highly productive plots of land claimed from the shallow beds of freshwater lakes. These long, rectangular fields ranged in size from two to four meters wide and twenty to forty meters long and rose about one meter above water level. Misnamed “floating gardens,” chinampas are still cultivated in and around Xochimilco and neighboring cities and are a popular tourist attraction. A chinampa was constructed by piling alternating layers of vegetation and mud in shallow areas of lakes. The parcel was held secure at first by posts, and later, when the plot was established, by the roots of willow trees planted at the corners and along the sides. The entire plot thus served as a deep, humus-filled foundation for continuous cultivation. It was bordered by canals and walkways, and dipping into an adjacent canal provided irrigation. Although nutrients constantly replenished the soil in this manner, other fertilizers, crop rotation, and multiple cropping were probably used to increase production.
Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about the construction of chinampas?
AThey were only built in and around urban areas
BThey were produced when shallow lakes were drained.
CThey were attached to the lake bed and did not actually float in the water.
DThey had canals running through them
5
A variety of crops were grown on chinampas, including maize, beans, chiles, amaranth, tomatoes, and flowers. There are good indications that, like today, the chinampa farmers planted their seeds in small seedbeds, allowed them to germinate there, and then transplanted them throughout the chinampa. Maize, apparently, was the only crop that could bypass this stage. The seedbed technique assured greater returns, since only germinated plants were transplanted. Furthermore, it allowed the cultivator some overlap in cropping: while one crop was about to be harvested, another could be germinating in the seedbeds. This would have reduced the intervals between croppings. Today, and probably in the sixteenth century, seven different crops are possible on any chinampa annually.
Why does the author provide the information that “while one crop was about to be harvested, another could be germinating in the seedbeds?”
ATo present a method that was used as an alternative to the seedbed technique
BTo support the claim that only germinated plants were transplanted to seedbeds
CTo suggest a reason why the chinampas of today may be as productive as those in the sixteenth century
DTo illustrate an advantage of the seedbed technique
6
A variety of crops were grown on chinampas, including maize, beans, chiles, amaranth, tomatoes, and flowers. There are good indications that, like today, the chinampa farmers planted their seeds in small seedbeds, allowed them to germinate there, and then transplanted them throughout the chinampa. Maize, apparently, was the only crop that could bypass this stage. The seedbed technique assured greater returns, since only germinated plants were transplanted. Furthermore, it allowed the cultivator some overlap in cropping: while one crop was about to be harvested, another could be germinating in the seedbeds. This would have reduced the intervals between croppings. Today, and probably in the sixteenth century, seven different crops are possible on any chinampa annually.
According to paragraph 3. which of the following is true of how crops were grown on the chinampas?
ARegions that focused on maize generally did not grow other crops on their chinampas.
BThe techniques used in the sixteenth century were likely very different from those used on the chinampas today.
CAt least seven different crops were planted at the same time because some crops did not germinate on the chinampas.
DProbably every crop except maize was started in a seedbed and then transferred to the chinampas after germination.
7
While the intensiveness, reliability, and versatility of this system cannot be overemphasized, it must be placed in the context of the population it supported. After extensive investigations of sixteenth-century documents, Edward Calnek has concluded that: “The larger chinampa holdings would normally have provided no more than 15 percent of family subsistence income; in a large number of cases, the actual contribution must be estimated at a fraction of 1 percent of family needs. With respect to the smaller sites, it is difficult to imagine why chinampas were maintained at all.” Calnek provides an answer by suggesting that the value of the plots lay less in their overall productive yields than in their specialization in the production of fresh vegetables. Flowers also were an important perishable that could be produced on the urban chinampas; hardly a religious festival or political feast took place without an abundance of aromatic flowers. In these areas, a family may have met subsistence needs through advantageous marketplace exchanges of their specialized products or through allocations from the state. Outside the densely populated urban areas, chinampas plots were generally larger and resident families smaller. Such a family could probably not only fully support itself from its own chinampas production but also produce sizeable surpluses. This applied particularly to the southern lakeshores of the Basin of Mexico, around Xochimilco and Chalco, which had the greatest number of chinampas.
According to paragraph 4. families in urban areas may have met their subsistence needs in which of the following ways?
ABy living mostly off the crops from their own chinampas
BBy growing and trading specialized products
CBy relying on the proceeds they received from selling their surpluses to people from rural areas
DBy supplying fresh vegetables for religious and political events
8
While the intensiveness, reliability, and versatility of this system cannot be overemphasized, it must be placed in the context of the population it supported. After extensive investigations of sixteenth-century documents, Edward Calnek has concluded that: “The larger chinampa holdings would normally have provided no more than 15 percent of family subsistence income; in a large number of cases, the actual contribution must be estimated at a fraction of 1 percent of family needs. With respect to the smaller sites, it is difficult to imagine why chinampas were maintained at all.” Calnek provides an answer by suggesting that the value of the plots lay less in their overall productive yields than in their specialization in the production of fresh vegetables. Flowers also were an important perishable that could be produced on the urban chinampas; hardly a religious festival or political feast took place without an abundance of aromatic flowers. In these areas, a family may have met subsistence needs through advantageous marketplace exchanges of their specialized products or through allocations from the state. Outside the densely populated urban areas, chinampas plots were generally larger and resident families smaller. Such a family could probably not only fully support itself from its own chinampas production but also produce sizeable surpluses. This applied particularly to the southern lakeshores of the Basin of Mexico, around Xochimilco and Chalco, which had the greatest number of chinampas.
According to paragraph 4. which of the following is true of the chinampas around Xochimilco and Chalco?
AThey produced enough to fully support their resident families with some left over.
BThey were located near urban areas that had large marketplaces.
CThey were worked by large resident families who each owned a small portion of their plots.
DThey were more productive than the chinampas near the southern lakeshores of the Basin of Mexico.
9
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Aztec empire stretched across what is now central and southern Mexico and included both highlands and lowlands. [■] On relatively flat lowlands and in some shallow lake beds, irrigation agriculture was the rule. [■] In these areas, floodwater irrigation systems were constructed over large areas. [■] The soils were fortified and replenished by nutrients and soil particles carried in the water; thus, the need for fallowing (leaving land uncultivated for a time) was eliminated. [■] Irrigation was far more intensive than the fallowing technique, providing greater surpluses and supporting larger populations. Crop rotation and fertilizers may have been used to further increase yields. Lands with easy access to natural springs could be irrigated permanently with spring water. Springs were numerous in the southern part of the Basin of Mexico, and vast systems of irrigation agriculture were concentrated there. These permanent systems, along with floodwater networks favorably situated near springs, could draw on water supplies prior to the onset of the rainy season. Crops could be planted early and mature with certainty before the frost season began. Reliability of production, therefore, was relatively high.
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
Different parts of the empire required different agricultural techniques
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
10
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Aztecs grew crops using chinampas, a unique form of irrigation agriculture.
AChinampas were preferable to other types of irrigation agriculture that used natural springs because springs went dry for part of the year
BMost of the various crops grown on chinampas started out as seedlings in seedbeds and were transplanted later, increasing output and allowing for overlap between crops
CUnlike the original chinampas, today’s floating gardens in Xochimilco and neighboring cities produce multiple croppings without the need for seedbeds.
DCommon in the southern part of the Basin of Mexico, chinampas were rectangular fields constructed in shallow lake beds out of alternating layers of vegetation and mud.
EIn some rural areas chinampas could support the families who worked them, but in urban areas chinampas probably provided only specialized products such as vegetables and flowers.
FChinampas were significant for the large quantities of a wide variety of crops they produced, allowing farmers to cultivate specialized crops on non-irrigated fields
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