Evidence exists of early forms of urbanization in Western Sudan along the Sahel, a climatically transitional band stretching across Africa between the Sahara Desert to the north and the Sudanian savanna (grasslands) to the south. The first accounts of the existence of states in this region appear in Arab writings of the eighth century AD. By the eleventh century AD, Arabs and Berbers of faraway North Africa knew of the Wagadu Empire and its wealthy and powerful ruler called the ghana. The Wagadu kingdom was followed by the larger empire of Mali, and later still by the empire of Songhai.
The broad flat expanse of the Western Sudan enables the placid Niger River to meander in its sweeping arc from west to east, making the river ideally suited to human navigation. This topography has also allowed for the easy movement of peoples, languages, animals, crops, arts, and ideas. The dramatic diversity of temperature and climate that separates broad strips of territory has encouraged economic specialization within each region. Pastoralists (animal herders) living on the edge of the desert in the Sahelian city of Timbuktu are only 200 kilometers north of the fertile floodplain of the Niger River. Farmers on the savanna below the Niger are in turn only a few hundred kilometers from the edge of the great equatorial rain forest. Throughout the long history of the Western Sudan, the proximity of these disparate zones has made trade crucial to the prosperity of settled communities. Protein-deficient farmers of the savanna needed meat from their pastoral neighbors and salt from desert nomads. Nomadic herders of the Sahel needed the cereals produced by the farmers and exchanged them for the meat and hides of their livestock. Forest dwellers traded meat and skins from the animals they hunted, as well as foodstuffs from forest crops. Fishermen of the Niger sent their protein-rich catches in all directions. This regional interdependence encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and in strategic locations, the creation of towns, cities, and states (societies with centralized political authority, a ruling class, and urban centers). These trading relationships were forged centuries before Arab writers ever heard of the wealth of the ghana.
However, until recent times most scholars attributed the rise of Sudanic states to the introduction of the camel into the Sahara around the fourth century AD. Camels brought the first Arab travelers to the previously unknown empires of the Sudan, thereby providing historians with the earliest written evidence of their existence. Armed with these documents, they assumed that the cities of the Sudan had emerged in response to the needs of Arab and Berber desert traders. Before the appearance of the rare and exotic goods supplied by the trade, scholars reasoned, rulers lacked the leverage they needed to elevate themselves in the eyes of their followers. Such an interpretation argued against common sense, as it is unlikely that merchants would chance the arduous trip across the desert if there were no urban markets to attract them, but it was supported by the few written sources available, all of which were produced by literate outsiders who traveled into the region after the advent of camel commerce.
Recent archaeological excavations have revealed that the Western Sudan had thriving urban centers before the first camels made their way across the desert. Indeed, at Jenne on the Middle Niger, archaeologists have uncovered a sprawling urban settlement that lacks the monumental architecture, elaborate tombs, and memorials to powerful individuals that are associated with contemporary Near Eastern and Nile Valley remains. Instead, the settlement pattern suggests a diffusion of political power and a remarkable degree of social and economic equality. Although some archaeologists question whether or not such settlements constitute true urbanization, others see in Jenne a remarkable example of social complexification without state-sponsored coercion.
Although there can be no doubt that complex societies emerged in the Western Sudan before the advent of camel-borne commerce, the integration of the camel into the trans-Saharan caravan trade stimulated political expansion in the region. The quickening pace of economic activity spurred urbanization and encouraged economic specialization, which in turn demanded greater political authority to safeguard the merchants and the indigenous elite who participated in the trade. Merchants at both the northern and southern markets required security, without which commerce could not continue, let alone flourish.
1
The broad flat expanse of the Western Sudan enables the placid Niger River to meander in its sweeping arc from west to east, making the river ideally suited to human navigation. This topography has also allowed for the easy movement of peoples, languages, animals, crops, arts, and ideas. The dramatic diversity of temperature and climate that separates broad strips of territory has encouraged economic specialization within each region. Pastoralists (animal herders) living on the edge of the desert in the Sahelian city of Timbuktu are only 200 kilometers north of the fertile floodplain of the Niger River. Farmers on the savanna below the Niger are in turn only a few hundred kilometers from the edge of the great equatorial rain forest. Throughout the long history of the Western Sudan, the proximity of these disparate zones has made trade crucial to the prosperity of settled communities. Protein-deficient farmers of the savanna needed meat from their pastoral neighbors and salt from desert nomads. Nomadic herders of the Sahel needed the cereals produced by the farmers and exchanged them for the meat and hides of their livestock. Forest dwellers traded meat and skins from the animals they hunted, as well as foodstuffs from forest crops. Fishermen of the Niger sent their protein-rich catches in all directions. This regional interdependence encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and in strategic locations, the creation of towns, cities, and states (societies with centralized political authority, a ruling class, and urban centers). These trading relationships were forged centuries before Arab writers ever heard of the wealth of the ghana.
The word “strategic” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Asafe
Bscattered
Cdifferent
Dkey
2
The broad flat expanse of the Western Sudan enables the placid Niger River to meander in its sweeping arc from west to east, making the river ideally suited to human navigation. This topography has also allowed for the easy movement of peoples, languages, animals, crops, arts, and ideas. The dramatic diversity of temperature and climate that separates broad strips of territory has encouraged economic specialization within each region. Pastoralists (animal herders) living on the edge of the desert in the Sahelian city of Timbuktu are only 200 kilometers north of the fertile floodplain of the Niger River. Farmers on the savanna below the Niger are in turn only a few hundred kilometers from the edge of the great equatorial rain forest. Throughout the long history of the Western Sudan, the proximity of these disparate zones has made trade crucial to the prosperity of settled communities. Protein-deficient farmers of the savanna needed meat from their pastoral neighbors and salt from desert nomads. Nomadic herders of the Sahel needed the cereals produced by the farmers and exchanged them for the meat and hides of their livestock. Forest dwellers traded meat and skins from the animals they hunted, as well as foodstuffs from forest crops. Fishermen of the Niger sent their protein-rich catches in all directions. This regional interdependence encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and in strategic locations, the creation of towns, cities, and states (societies with centralized political authority, a ruling class, and urban centers). These trading relationships were forged centuries before Arab writers ever heard of the wealth of the ghana.
According to paragraph 2, the characteristics of the land in the Western Sudan had which of the following effects on the early people living there?
APeople had to develop advanced navigation skills in order to survive.
BFarmers had to learn to use animals to help them work on the farms.
CThe Niger River became the people’s main source of food.
DPeople could easily transport themselves and their goods.
3
The broad flat expanse of the Western Sudan enables the placid Niger River to meander in its sweeping arc from west to east, making the river ideally suited to human navigation. This topography has also allowed for the easy movement of peoples, languages, animals, crops, arts, and ideas. The dramatic diversity of temperature and climate that separates broad strips of territory has encouraged economic specialization within each region. Pastoralists (animal herders) living on the edge of the desert in the Sahelian city of Timbuktu are only 200 kilometers north of the fertile floodplain of the Niger River. Farmers on the savanna below the Niger are in turn only a few hundred kilometers from the edge of the great equatorial rain forest. Throughout the long history of the Western Sudan, the proximity of these disparate zones has made trade crucial to the prosperity of settled communities. Protein-deficient farmers of the savanna needed meat from their pastoral neighbors and salt from desert nomads. Nomadic herders of the Sahel needed the cereals produced by the farmers and exchanged them for the meat and hides of their livestock. Forest dwellers traded meat and skins from the animals they hunted, as well as foodstuffs from forest crops. Fishermen of the Niger sent their protein-rich catches in all directions. This regional interdependence encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and in strategic locations, the creation of towns, cities, and states (societies with centralized political authority, a ruling class, and urban centers). These trading relationships were forged centuries before Arab writers ever heard of the wealth of the ghana.
According to paragraph 2, which of the following led to economic specialization in the Western Sudan?
AThe different climatic conditions in each region
BThe settlement of the area by many different social groups
CThe trade requirements of faraway cities
DThe shortage of land suitable for growing a wide variety of crops
4
The broad flat expanse of the Western Sudan enables the placid Niger River to meander in its sweeping arc from west to east, making the river ideally suited to human navigation. This topography has also allowed for the easy movement of peoples, languages, animals, crops, arts, and ideas. The dramatic diversity of temperature and climate that separates broad strips of territory has encouraged economic specialization within each region. Pastoralists (animal herders) living on the edge of the desert in the Sahelian city of Timbuktu are only 200 kilometers north of the fertile floodplain of the Niger River. Farmers on the savanna below the Niger are in turn only a few hundred kilometers from the edge of the great equatorial rain forest. Throughout the long history of the Western Sudan, the proximity of these disparate zones has made trade crucial to the prosperity of settled communities. Protein-deficient farmers of the savanna needed meat from their pastoral neighbors and salt from desert nomads. Nomadic herders of the Sahel needed the cereals produced by the farmers and exchanged them for the meat and hides of their livestock. Forest dwellers traded meat and skins from the animals they hunted, as well as foodstuffs from forest crops. Fishermen of the Niger sent their protein-rich catches in all directions. This regional interdependence encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and in strategic locations, the creation of towns, cities, and states (societies with centralized political authority, a ruling class, and urban centers). These trading relationships were forged centuries before Arab writers ever heard of the wealth of the ghana.
In paragraph 2, why does the author mention the various foodstuffs of the Western Sudan such as meat, cereals, and salt?
ATo show the great fertility of each local environment
BTo demonstrate the economic interdependence of the region
CTo illustrate the agricultural advancements of people of different parts of the area
DTo explain why the people of the region had such a long history of searching for adequate food supplies
5
However, until recent times most scholars attributed the rise of Sudanic states to the introduction of the camel into the Sahara around the fourth century AD. Camels brought the first Arab travelers to the previously unknown empires of the Sudan, thereby providing historians with the earliest written evidence of their existence. Armed with these documents, they assumed that the cities of the Sudan had emerged in response to the needs of Arab and Berber desert traders. Before the appearance of the rare and exotic goods supplied by the trade, scholars reasoned, rulers lacked the leverage they needed to elevate themselves in the eyes of their followers. Such an interpretation argued against common sense, as it is unlikely that merchants would chance the arduous trip across the desert if there were no urban markets to attract them, but it was supported by the few written sources available, all of which were produced by literate outsiders who traveled into the region after the advent of camel commerce.
All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as possible consequences of the introduction of the camel into the Sahara EXCEPT
Aa supply of previously unavailable goods in the Sudan
Bdocuments that provided evidence to historians of Sudanic empires
Cincreased travel of Sudanese rulers to remote areas outside of urban centers
Dthe opportunity for Sudanese rulers to gain the respect of their followers
6
Recent archaeological excavations have revealed that the Western Sudan had thriving urban centers before the first camels made their way across the desert. Indeed, at Jenne on the Middle Niger, archaeologists have uncovered a sprawling urban settlement that lacks the monumental architecture, elaborate tombs, and memorials to powerful individuals that are associated with contemporary Near Eastern and Nile Valley remains. Instead, the settlement pattern suggests a diffusion of political power and a remarkable degree of social and economic equality. Although some archaeologists question whether or not such settlements constitute true urbanization, others see in Jenne a remarkable example of social complexification without state-sponsored coercion.
The word “degree” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Aextent
Bachievement
Cunderstanding
Dacceptance
7
Recent archaeological excavations have revealed that the Western Sudan had thriving urban centers before the first camels made their way across the desert. Indeed, at Jenne on the Middle Niger, archaeologists have uncovered a sprawling urban settlement that lacks the monumental architecture, elaborate tombs, and memorials to powerful individuals that are associated with contemporary Near Eastern and Nile Valley remains. Instead, the settlement pattern suggests a diffusion of political power and a remarkable degree of social and economic equality. Although some archaeologists question whether or not such settlements constitute true urbanization, others see in Jenne a remarkable example of social complexification without state-sponsored coercion.
In paragraph 4, why does the author provide the information that Jenne lacked monumental architecture, tombs, and memorials?
ATo argue that leaders in Jenne were more powerful than archeologists once thought
BTo establish that Jenne emphasized camel trade over other aspects of urbanization
CTo support the view that, before camels arrived, some urban centers had already existed and had social and economic equality
DTo indicate that excavations at Jenne were less complete than those in the Near East and Nile Valley
8
Although there can be no doubt that complex societies emerged in the Western Sudan before the advent of camel-borne commerce, the integration of the camel into the trans-Saharan caravan trade stimulated political expansion in the region. The quickening pace of economic activity spurred urbanization and encouraged economic specialization, which in turn demanded greater political authority to safeguard the merchants and the indigenous elite who participated in the trade. Merchants at both the northern and southern markets required security, without which commerce could not continue, let alone flourish.
Paragraph 5 implies which of the following about the transport of goods by camel?
AIt enabled northern and southern markets to trade with each other for the first time.
BWithout the presence of a political authority, it would have exposed trade participants to excessive risk.
CIt slowed the process of economic specialization.
DIt required merchants to limit their trade to certain goods that could survive the long journey
9
The broad flat expanse of the Western Sudan enables the placid Niger River to meander in its sweeping arc from west to east, making the river ideally suited to human navigation. This topography has also allowed for the easy movement of peoples, languages, animals, crops, arts, and ideas. The dramatic diversity of temperature and climate that separates broad strips of territory has encouraged economic specialization within each region. Pastoralists (animal herders) living on the edge of the desert in the Sahelian city of Timbuktu are only 200 kilometers north of the fertile floodplain of the Niger River. Farmers on the savanna below the Niger are in turn only a few hundred kilometers from the edge of the great equatorial rain forest. [■] Throughout the long history of the Western Sudan, the proximity of these disparate zones has made trade crucial to the prosperity of settled communities. [■] Protein-deficient farmers of the savanna needed meat from their pastoral neighbors and salt from desert nomads. [■] Nomadic herders of the Sahel needed the cereals produced by the farmers and exchanged them for the meat and hides of their livestock. [■] Forest dwellers traded meat and skins from the animals they hunted, as well as foodstuffs from forest crops. Fishermen of the Niger sent their protein-rich catches in all directions. This regional interdependence encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and in strategic locations, the creation of towns, cities, and states (societies with centralized political authority, a ruling class, and urban centers). These trading relationships were forged centuries before Arab writers ever heard of the wealth of the ghana.
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
When communities from one region traded with another, they generally did so to supplement their local resources.
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
10
The Western Sudan has a complicated history of settlement and development.
AAncient Arab texts discovered in the Sudan provide evidence that the Wagadu Empire and its leader had profound influence on the Arabs and Berbers of North Africa
BThe inhabitants of Western Sudan were primarily nomadic but over time adopted a settled life as farmers near the rich floodplains of the Niger Rive
CAs trade increased in the area of Western Sudan, rulers lost power to an elite class of traders and merchants who gained influence through wealth
DInterdependence among regions in the geographically and climatically diverse Western Sudan encouraged commerce, economic specialization, and the creation of cities and states.
EAlthough scholars once believed that states arose in the Sudan as a result of the introduction of the camel into the Sahara, archaeologists now know that urban centers existed in the Sudan much earlier.
FDisagreement remains about exactly how urbanized Sudanic centers were before the camel, but it is clear that once the camel was introduced, economic activity and urbanization grew.
