A major civilization along the Indus River (located in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India) emerged sometime after civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt did, around 2400 B.C.E. Several sites from the Indus River civilization demonstrate attention to controlling and storing water with drains, wells, channels, and dams. This civilization also invented a form of writing that has survived in short fragments. The large Indus River cities preceded the height of Bronze Age settlements in China. However, the Indus River civilization began to decline around 1800 B.C.E., and the largest settlements were abandoned by around 1600 B.C.E., long before the end of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The question of what caused the end of such a complex society has sparked debate. One of the archaeologists who carried out extensive excavations at one site asserted that the scattered bodies there were victims of a massacre carried out by northern invaders who sacked the city and destroyed the civilization. This narrative is dramatic but unconvincing: an assortment of skeletons does not prove a massacre carried out by any specific group or the end of a city. Many of the skeletons could also have been buried, albeit in a rudimentary fashion, and there is little archaeological evidence of an act of widespread destruction at the city’s end. In place of the invasion hypothesis, other historians suggested possible shifts in the course of the Indus River. Such fluctuations could certainly have led to the decline of some Indus River sites, but would not explain why an advanced society simply did not move to follow a new river course. Finally, newer archaeological studies take issue with the notion of a sudden collapse, pointing to a shift in settlement patterns to smaller communities to the east. In this scenario some of the peoples of the Indus River survived and adapted to a new way of life. Farming may have moved with migrants in such a pattern, but the Indus River civilization, with its distinct artifacts and script, died out.
Of all possible causes, climate change seems to have been most decisive in undermining the Indus River civilization. Monsoon rains (brought by seasonal winds) provided indispensable precipitation, and when the monsoon moved, the civilization faded away. Around 3050 B.C.E, a strong summer monsoon in this region fueled intense floods that precluded settlements and formal agriculture. But monsoon strength waned as Earth’s precession cycle(which determines the relationship between season and proximity to the Sun)caused summer insolation (the amount of incoming solar energy)to decrease. After 2550 B.C.E., this drying trend favored the rise of farming and complex society in the region. Rivers became calmer and floods less extreme, permitting the construction of towns and cities along rivers. However, a continued decrease in precipitation associated with the weakening monsoon threatened agriculture. Geochemical analyses of sediments (fine material that settles at the bottom of a body of water) from India’s Bay of Bengal provide evidence for the drying trend. Biological traces of vegetation buried in the sediment show an increasing abundance of plants adapted to arid (dry)conditions between 2050 B.C.E. and 250 C.E. After 250 C.E, plants that were adapted to arid conditions predominated. The shells of plankton (tiny animals living in the ocean)collected from these sediments record an overall increase in the salinity (salt levels)of the Bay of Bengal since 1050 B.C.E., which points to the reduced river flow in this region. Humans could have contributed to the problem through overgrazing of livestock and deforestation, causing further stress on a reduced water supply. Analysis of human remains suggests that disease increased with climate stress. In one sense, the population proved resilient if some moved east, but such migrants did not preserve their own civilization.
The increasing evidence in favor of climate change as the prime cause of the end of the Indus River civilization provides important historical lessons. Even an advanced society capable of controlling and manipulating water can meet its demise from aridity. As much as the Indus River people increased their independence from fluctuations in rainfall, they remained vulnerable to a sharp-enough climate shock.
1
A major civilization along the Indus River (located in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India) emerged sometime after civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt did, around 2400 B.C.E. Several sites from the Indus River civilization demonstrate attention to controlling and storing water with drains, wells, channels, and dams. This civilization also invented a form of writing that has survived in short fragments. The large Indus River cities preceded the height of Bronze Age settlements in China. However, the Indus River civilization began to decline around 1800 B.C.E., and the largest settlements were abandoned by around 1600 B.C.E., long before the end of ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about the timing of the Indus River civilization are true EXCEPT:
AThe Indus River civilization appeared after the ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations did.
BThe Indus River civilization reached its height before Bronze Age settlements in China did.
CThe Indus River civilization disappeared after Bronze Age settlements in China did.
DThe Indus River civilization did not last nearly as long as the ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations did.
2
The question of what caused the end of such a complex society has sparked debate. One of the archaeologists who carried out extensive excavations at one site asserted that the scattered bodies there were victims of a massacre carried out by northern invaders who sacked the city and destroyed the civilization. This narrative is dramatic but unconvincing: an assortment of skeletons does not prove a massacre carried out by any specific group or the end of a city. Many of the skeletons could also have been buried, albeit in a rudimentary fashion, and there is little archaeological evidence of an act of widespread destruction at the city’s end. In place of the invasion hypothesis, other historians suggested possible shifts in the course of the Indus River. Such fluctuations could certainly have led to the decline of some Indus River sites, but would not explain why an advanced society simply did not move to follow a new river course. Finally, newer archaeological studies take issue with the notion of a sudden collapse, pointing to a shift in settlement patterns to smaller communities to the east. In this scenario some of the peoples of the Indus River survived and adapted to a new way of life. Farming may have moved with migrants in such a pattern, but the Indus River civilization, with its distinct artifacts and script, died out.
The word “rudimentary” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Abasic
Bunusual
Churried
Dquestionable
3
The question of what caused the end of such a complex society has sparked debate. One of the archaeologists who carried out extensive excavations at one site asserted that the scattered bodies there were victims of a massacre carried out by northern invaders who sacked the city and destroyed the civilization. This narrative is dramatic but unconvincing: an assortment of skeletons does not prove a massacre carried out by any specific group or the end of a city. Many of the skeletons could also have been buried, albeit in a rudimentary fashion, and there is little archaeological evidence of an act of widespread destruction at the city’s end. In place of the invasion hypothesis, other historians suggested possible shifts in the course of the Indus River. Such fluctuations could certainly have led to the decline of some Indus River sites, but would not explain why an advanced society simply did not move to follow a new river course. Finally, newer archaeological studies take issue with the notion of a sudden collapse, pointing to a shift in settlement patterns to smaller communities to the east. In this scenario some of the peoples of the Indus River survived and adapted to a new way of life. Farming may have moved with migrants in such a pattern, but the Indus River civilization, with its distinct artifacts and script, died out.
Paragraph 2 suggests that which of the following led one archaeologist to believe that a massacre caused the end of the Indus River civilization?
AThe discovery of records stating that northern invaders sacked nearby cities around the same time
BThe arrangement of skeletons at a site
CThe evidence of destruction in many cities
DThe discovery of remains of northern invaders
4
The question of what caused the end of such a complex society has sparked debate. One of the archaeologists who carried out extensive excavations at one site asserted that the scattered bodies there were victims of a massacre carried out by northern invaders who sacked the city and destroyed the civilization. This narrative is dramatic but unconvincing: an assortment of skeletons does not prove a massacre carried out by any specific group or the end of a city. Many of the skeletons could also have been buried, albeit in a rudimentary fashion, and there is little archaeological evidence of an act of widespread destruction at the city’s end. In place of the invasion hypothesis, other historians suggested possible shifts in the course of the Indus River. Such fluctuations could certainly have led to the decline of some Indus River sites, but would not explain why an advanced society simply did not move to follow a new river course. Finally, newer archaeological studies take issue with the notion of a sudden collapse, pointing to a shift in settlement patterns to smaller communities to the east. In this scenario some of the peoples of the Indus River survived and adapted to a new way of life. Farming may have moved with migrants in such a pattern, but the Indus River civilization, with its distinct artifacts and script, died out.
Paragraph 2 mentions which of the following problems with the idea that changes in the course of the Indus River ended the Indus River civilization?
AArchaeological evidence indicates that shifts in the course of the Indus River and the decline of the Indus River civilization did not occur at the same time.
BIndus River peoples could have moved their communities to follow the changed direction of the river.
CShifts in the course of the Indus River would not have been significant enough to lead people to leave their communities.
DWhile evidence from older archeological studies supports shifts in the course of the Indus River, newer studies have not found evidence of such shifts.
5
The question of what caused the end of such a complex society has sparked debate. One of the archaeologists who carried out extensive excavations at one site asserted that the scattered bodies there were victims of a massacre carried out by northern invaders who sacked the city and destroyed the civilization. This narrative is dramatic but unconvincing: an assortment of skeletons does not prove a massacre carried out by any specific group or the end of a city. Many of the skeletons could also have been buried, albeit in a rudimentary fashion, and there is little archaeological evidence of an act of widespread destruction at the city’s end. In place of the invasion hypothesis, other historians suggested possible shifts in the course of the Indus River. Such fluctuations could certainly have led to the decline of some Indus River sites, but would not explain why an advanced society simply did not move to follow a new river course. Finally, newer archaeological studies take issue with the notion of a sudden collapse, pointing to a shift in settlement patterns to smaller communities to the east. In this scenario some of the peoples of the Indus River survived and adapted to a new way of life. Farming may have moved with migrants in such a pattern, but the Indus River civilization, with its distinct artifacts and script, died out.
According to paragraph 2, newer archaeological studies about the Indus River civilization disagree with which of the following conclusions of older archaeological studies?
AIt ended suddenly.
BIt once contained large cities.
CIt shifted to the east.
DIt was mainly an agricultural society.
6
Of all possible causes, climate change seems to have been most decisive in undermining the Indus River civilization. Monsoon rains (brought by seasonal winds) provided indispensable precipitation, and when the monsoon moved, the civilization faded away. Around 3050 B.C.E, a strong summer monsoon in this region fueled intense floods that precluded settlements and formal agriculture. But monsoon strength waned as Earth’s precession cycle(which determines the relationship between season and proximity to the Sun)caused summer insolation (the amount of incoming solar energy)to decrease. After 2550 B.C.E., this drying trend favored the rise of farming and complex society in the region. Rivers became calmer and floods less extreme, permitting the construction of towns and cities along rivers. However, a continued decrease in precipitation associated with the weakening monsoon threatened agriculture. Geochemical analyses of sediments (fine material that settles at the bottom of a body of water) from India’s Bay of Bengal provide evidence for the drying trend. Biological traces of vegetation buried in the sediment show an increasing abundance of plants adapted to arid (dry)conditions between 2050 B.C.E. and 250 C.E. After 250 C.E, plants that were adapted to arid conditions predominated. The shells of plankton (tiny animals living in the ocean)collected from these sediments record an overall increase in the salinity (salt levels)of the Bay of Bengal since 1050 B.C.E., which points to the reduced river flow in this region. Humans could have contributed to the problem through overgrazing of livestock and deforestation, causing further stress on a reduced water supply. Analysis of human remains suggests that disease increased with climate stress. In one sense, the population proved resilient if some moved east, but such migrants did not preserve their own civilization.
According to paragraph 3, which of the following helps explain why farming and complex society did not rise along the Indus River until after 2550 B.C.E.?
AEarth’s precession cycle caused summer insolation to increase again after 2550 B.C.E.
BFloods around 2550 B.C.E. filled the rivers with water needed for farming.
CFarmers migrated to the Indus River Valley around 2550 B.C.E. to escape dry conditions in other areas.
DStrong seasonal rains before 2550 B.C.E. made the area too wet for farming.
7
Of all possible causes, climate change seems to have been most decisive in undermining the Indus River civilization. Monsoon rains (brought by seasonal winds) provided indispensable precipitation, and when the monsoon moved, the civilization faded away. Around 3050 B.C.E, a strong summer monsoon in this region fueled intense floods that precluded settlements and formal agriculture. But monsoon strength waned as Earth’s precession cycle(which determines the relationship between season and proximity to the Sun)caused summer insolation (the amount of incoming solar energy)to decrease. After 2550 B.C.E., this drying trend favored the rise of farming and complex society in the region. Rivers became calmer and floods less extreme, permitting the construction of towns and cities along rivers. However, a continued decrease in precipitation associated with the weakening monsoon threatened agriculture. Geochemical analyses of sediments (fine material that settles at the bottom of a body of water) from India’s Bay of Bengal provide evidence for the drying trend. Biological traces of vegetation buried in the sediment show an increasing abundance of plants adapted to arid (dry)conditions between 2050 B.C.E. and 250 C.E. After 250 C.E, plants that were adapted to arid conditions predominated. The shells of plankton (tiny animals living in the ocean)collected from these sediments record an overall increase in the salinity (salt levels)of the Bay of Bengal since 1050 B.C.E., which points to the reduced river flow in this region. Humans could have contributed to the problem through overgrazing of livestock and deforestation, causing further stress on a reduced water supply. Analysis of human remains suggests that disease increased with climate stress. In one sense, the population proved resilient if some moved east, but such migrants did not preserve their own civilization.
According to paragraph 3, geochemical analyses of sediment from the Bay of Bengal provide evidence of all of the following EXCEPT:
APlants that grow in dry conditions became more common between 2050 B.C.E. and 250 C.E.
BMost plants in the region after 250 C.E. were adapted to dry conditions.
CThe Bay of Bengal became saltier after 1050 B.C.E.
DPlankton populations in the region increased after 1050 B.C.E.
8
The increasing evidence in favor of climate change as the prime cause of the end of the Indus River civilization provides important historical lessons. Even an advanced society capable of controlling and manipulating water can meet its demise from aridity. As much as the Indus River people increased their independence from fluctuations in rainfall, they remained vulnerable to a sharp-enough climate shock.
The purpose of paragraph 4 in the passage is to
Asummarize the evidence supporting climate change as the prime cause of the end of the Indus River civilization
Bconclude that none of the previous theories about the demise of the Indus River civilization could be supported by historical evidence
Cuse the specific example of the Indus River civilization to make a general point about the possible effect of drying on advanced societies
Dillustrate how later civilizations applied the lessons they learned from the Indus River civilization
9
Of all possible causes, climate change seems to have been most decisive in undermining the Indus River civilization. Monsoon rains (brought by seasonal winds) provided indispensable precipitation, and when the monsoon moved, the civilization faded away. ■Around 3050 B.C.E, a strong summer monsoon in this region fueled intense floods that precluded settlements and formal agriculture. ■ But monsoon strength waned as Earth’s precession cycle(which determines the relationship between season and proximity to the Sun)caused summer insolation (the amount of incoming solar energy)to decrease. ■ After 2550 B.C.E., this drying trend favored the rise of farming and complex society in the region. ■ Rivers became calmer and floods less extreme, permitting the construction of towns and cities along rivers. However, a continued decrease in precipitation associated with the weakening monsoon threatened agriculture. Geochemical analyses of sediments (fine material that settles at the bottom of a body of water) from India’s Bay of Bengal provide evidence for the drying trend. Biological traces of vegetation buried in the sediment show an increasing abundance of plants adapted to arid (dry)conditions between 2050 B.C.E. and 250 C.E. After 250 C.E, plants that were adapted to arid conditions predominated. The shells of plankton (tiny animals living in the ocean)collected from these sediments record an overall increase in the salinity (salt levels)of the Bay of Bengal since 1050 B.C.E., which points to the reduced river flow in this region. Humans could have contributed to the problem through overgrazing of livestock and deforestation, causing further stress on a reduced water supply. Analysis of human remains suggests that disease increased with climate stress. In one sense, the population proved resilient if some moved east, but such migrants did not preserve their own civilization.
Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage
There are several theories about the cause of the disappearance of Indus River civilization around 1600 B.C.E
Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square sentence to the passage.
10
There are several theories about the cause of the disappearance of Indus River civilization around 1600 B.C.E
AThe positions of skeletons and artifacts at Indus River sites suggest that wars and diseases contributed to the decline of the Indus River civilization.
BA drying climate at first allowed Indus River agriculture to take place,but continued drying later made farming increasingly difficult.
CSome Indus River peoples may have survived the increased stress and disease by moving east, but major aspects of their culture disappeared.
DThere is little archaeological evidence for the claim that a massacre by invaders or a shift in the course of the Indus River destroyed the Indus River civilization.
EThe collapse of the Indus River civilization provides an important historical lesson of how widespread destruction of forests for agriculture can make land unsuitable for farming.
FAncient civilizations in other parts of the world succeeded where Indus River civilization failed by developing more-sophisticated techniques for controlling water.
