Written Records

For those ancient civilizations that used writing—for instance, all the great civilizations in Mesoamerica, China, Egypt, and the Near East—written historical records can answer many social questions. A prime goal of the archaeologist studying these societies is therefore to find appropriate texts. Many of the early excavations of the great sites of the Near East had the recovery of clay writing tablets as the main goal. Major finds of this kind are still being made—for example, at the ancient city of Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria, where an archive of 5,000 clay tablets written in an early dialect of Akkadian (Babylonian) was discovered in the 1970s.

In each early literate society, writing had its own function and purpose. For instance, the clay tablets of Mycenaean Greece, dating from around 1200 B.C., were all, without exception, primarily records of commercial transactions (goods coming in or going out) at the Mycenaean palaces. This discovery gives us an impression of many aspects of the Mycenaean economy and a glimpse into craft organization (through the names for the different kinds of craftspeople), as well as introducing the names of the offices of state. But here, as in other cases, accidents of preservation may be important. It could be that the Mycenaeans wrote on clay only for their commercial records and used other perishable materials for literary or historical texts now lost to us. It is certainly true that for the Classical Greek and Roman civilizations, it is mainly official decrees inscribed on marble that have survived. Fragile rolls of papyrus—the predecessor of modern paper—with literary texts on them, have usually remained intact only when retained in the dry air of Egypt, or when buried beneath the volcanic ash covering Pompeii.

Coins also provide a valuable source of written records: they can reveal information about the location where they are found, which can provide evidence about trade practices there, and their inscriptions can be informative about the issuing authority, whether they were city-states (as in ancient Greece) or sole rulers (as in Imperial Rome or in the kingdoms of medieval Europe).

In recent years, one of the most significant advances in Mesoamerican archaeology has come from deciphering many of the inscribed symbols (glyphs) on the stone stelae (pillars or columns) at the largest centers. It had been widely assumed that the inscriptions were exclusively of a calendrical nature or that they dealt with purely religious matters, notably the deeds of the gods. But the inscriptions can now in many cases be interpreted as relating to real historical events, mainly the deeds of the Maya kings. We can now also begin to deduce the likely territories belonging to individual Maya centers. Maya history has thus taken on a new dimension.

Written records undoubtedly contribute greatly to our knowledge of the society in question. But one should not accept them uncritically at face value. Nor should one forget the bias introduced by the accidents of preservation and the particular uses of literacy in a society. The great risk with historical records is that they can impose their own perspective so that they begin not only to supply the answers to our questions but subtly to determine the nature of those questions and even our concepts and terminology. A good example is the question of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England. Most anthropologists and historians tend to think of a king as the leader of a state society. Therefore, when the earliest records for Anglo-Saxon England, found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took final shape in about A.D. 1155, refer to kings around A.D. 500, it is easy for the historian to think of kings and states at that period. But the archaeology strongly suggests that a full state society did not emerge until the time of King Offa of Mercia in around A.D. 780, or perhaps King Alfred of Wessex in A.D. 871. It is fairly clear that the earlier so-called kings were generally less significant figures than some of the rulers in either Africa or Polynesia in recent times, whom anthropologists would term “chiefs”.

 

 

1

For those ancient civilizations that used writing—for instance, all the great civilizations in Mesoamerica, China, Egypt, and the Near East—written historical records can answer many social questions. A prime goal of the archaeologist studying these societies is therefore to find appropriate texts. Many of the early excavations of the great sites of the Near East had the recovery of clay writing tablets as the main goal. Major finds of this kind are still being made—for example, at the ancient city of Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria, where an archive of 5,000 clay tablets written in an early dialect of Akkadian (Babylonian) was discovered in the 1970s.

The word “appropriate” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Aancient

Bsuitable

Cnew

Dcomplete

 

2

For those ancient civilizations that used writing—for instance, all the great civilizations in Mesoamerica, China, Egypt, and the Near East—written historical records can answer many social questions. A prime goal of the archaeologist studying these societies is therefore to find appropriate texts. Many of the early excavations of the great sites of the Near East had the recovery of clay writing tablets as the main goal. Major finds of this kind are still being made—for example, at the ancient city of Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria, where an archive of 5,000 clay tablets written in an early dialect of Akkadian (Babylonian) was discovered in the 1970s.

According to paragraph 1, why did many early excavations of sites of the great civilizations of the Near East have the recovery of clay writing tablets as the main goal?

AArchaeologists wanted to determine the writing systems used by the ancient societies that once inhabited those sites.

BArchaeologists wanted to show that early literate civilizations used clay tablets for their historical records.

CArchaeologists hoped that the clay tablets would answer many of their questions about the ancient societies that once inhabited those sites.

DArchaeologists hoped to find evidence that languages other than early Akkadian had been used by the ancient societies that once inhabited those

 

3

In each early literate society, writing had its own function and purpose. For instance, the clay tablets of Mycenaean Greece, dating from around 1200 B.C., were all, without exception, primarily records of commercial transactions (goods coming in or going out) at the Mycenaean palaces. This discovery gives us an impression of many aspects of the Mycenaean economy and a glimpse into craft organization (through the names for the different kinds of craftspeople), as well as introducing the names of the offices of state. But here, as in other cases, accidents of preservation may be important. It could be that the Mycenaeans wrote on clay only for their commercial records and used other perishable materials for literary or historical texts now lost to us. It is certainly true that for the Classical Greek and Roman civilizations, it is mainly official decrees inscribed on marble that have survived. Fragile rolls of papyrus—the predecessor of modern paper—with literary texts on them, have usually remained intact only when retained in the dry air of Egypt, or when buried beneath the volcanic ash covering Pompeii.

According to paragraph 2, the writing on Mycenaean clay tablets helped to reveal all of the following about Mycenaean society EXCEPT:

Athe flow of goods entering and leaving palaces

Bthe names for various types of craftspeople

Cthe names of government offices

Dthe kinds of materials used to build Mycenaean palaces

 

4

In each early literate society, writing had its own function and purpose. For instance, the clay tablets of Mycenaean Greece, dating from around 1200 B.C., were all, without exception, primarily records of commercial transactions (goods coming in or going out) at the Mycenaean palaces. This discovery gives us an impression of many aspects of the Mycenaean economy and a glimpse into craft organization (through the names for the different kinds of craftspeople), as well as introducing the names of the offices of state. But here, as in other cases, accidents of preservation may be important. It could be that the Mycenaeans wrote on clay only for their commercial records and used other perishable materials for literary or historical texts now lost to us. It is certainly true that for the Classical Greek and Roman civilizations, it is mainly official decrees inscribed on marble that have survived. Fragile rolls of papyrus—the predecessor of modern paper—with literary texts on them, have usually remained intact only when retained in the dry air of Egypt, or when buried beneath the volcanic ash covering Pompeii.

The phrase “a glimpse into” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Anew evidence of

Bsurprising information about

Ca brief view of

Da complete picture of

 

5

In each early literate society, writing had its own function and purpose. For instance, the clay tablets of Mycenaean Greece, dating from around 1200 B.C., were all, without exception, primarily records of commercial transactions (goods coming in or going out) at the Mycenaean palaces. This discovery gives us an impression of many aspects of the Mycenaean economy and a glimpse into craft organization (through the names for the different kinds of craftspeople), as well as introducing the names of the offices of state. But here, as in other cases, accidents of preservation may be important. It could be that the Mycenaeans wrote on clay only for their commercial records and used other perishable materials for literary or historical texts now lost to us. It is certainly true that for the Classical Greek and Roman civilizations, it is mainly official decrees inscribed on marble that have survived. Fragile rolls of papyrus—the predecessor of modern paper—with literary texts on them, have usually remained intact only when retained in the dry air of Egypt, or when buried beneath the volcanic ash covering Pompeii.

The word “perishable” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Alikely to decay

Bdifficult to repair

Cvaluable

Dhard to find

 

6

In each early literate society, writing had its own function and purpose. For instance, the clay tablets of Mycenaean Greece, dating from around 1200 B.C., were all, without exception, primarily records of commercial transactions (goods coming in or going out) at the Mycenaean palaces. This discovery gives us an impression of many aspects of the Mycenaean economy and a glimpse into craft organization (through the names for the different kinds of craftspeople), as well as introducing the names of the offices of state. But here, as in other cases, accidents of preservation may be important. It could be that the Mycenaeans wrote on clay only for their commercial records and used other perishable materials for literary or historical texts now lost to us. It is certainly true that for the Classical Greek and Roman civilizations, it is mainly official decrees inscribed on marble that have survived. Fragile rolls of papyrus—the predecessor of modern paper—with literary texts on them, have usually remained intact only when retained in the dry air of Egypt, or when buried beneath the volcanic ash covering Pompeii.

In paragraph 2, why does the author discuss writing from the Classical Greekand Roman civilizations?

ATo help explain why early civilizations wrote mainly on stone and clay tablets

BTo explain how the role of physical material in the preservation of texts can affect our understanding of ancient societies

CTo compare the function of writing in Classical Greek and Roman civilizations

DTo show that some texts on papyrus survived as long as texts inscribed on marble

 

7

Coins also provide a valuable source of written records: they can reveal information about the location where they are found, which can provide evidence about trade practices there, and their inscriptions can be informative about the issuing authority, whether they were city-states (as in ancient Greece) or sole rulers (as in Imperial Rome or in the kingdoms of medieval Europe).

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaningin important ways or leave out essential information.

AThe locations where coins are found can provide information about local trade practices, and the writing on the coins can indicate what kind of government issued them.

BCoins issued in ancient Greece and Rome and in medieval Europe are important sources of information about the role of writing at those locations.

CKings and other rulers often used coins to record information about trade with other governments and about their personal lives.

DCoins became important in conducting trade transactions, and their inscriptions often indicate the locations where they were issued.

 

8

In recent years, one of the most significant advances in Mesoamerican archaeology has come from deciphering many of the inscribed symbols (glyphs) on the stone stelae (pillars or columns) at the largest centers. It had been widely assumed that the inscriptions were exclusively of a calendrical nature or that they dealt with purely religious matters, notably the deeds of the gods. But the inscriptions can now in many cases be interpreted as relating to real historical events, mainly the deeds of the Maya kings. We can now also begin to deduce the likely territories belonging to individual Maya centers. Maya history has thus taken on a new dimension.

The word “notably” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Aparticularly

Bprobably

Cusually

Dunderstandably

 

9

In recent years, one of the most significant advances in Mesoamerican archaeology has come from deciphering many of the inscribed symbols (glyphs) on the stone stelae (pillars or columns) at the largest centers. It had been widely assumed that the inscriptions were exclusively of a calendrical nature or that they dealt with purely religious matters, notably the deeds of the gods. But the inscriptions can now in many cases be interpreted as relating to real historical events, mainly the deeds of the Maya kings. We can now also begin to deduce the likely territories belonging to individual Maya centers. Maya history has thus taken on a new dimension.

According to paragraph 4, one result of understanding the symbols on stone stelae in Mesoamerica was that archaeologists could start to determine

Awhat types of calendars had been developed in Mesoamerica

Bwhat the Mayans believed about the actions of the gods

Cwhen texts on stone stelae were used for the first time

Dwhat territories likely belonged to individual Mayan centers

 

10

Written records undoubtedly contribute greatly to our knowledge of the society in question. But one should not accept them uncritically at face value. Nor should one forget the bias introduced by the accidents of preservation and the particular uses of literacy in a society. The great risk with historical records is that they can impose their own perspective so that they begin not only to supply the answers to our questions but subtly to determine the nature of those questions and even our concepts and terminology. A good example is the question of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England. Most anthropologists and historians tend to think of a king as the leader of a state society. Therefore, when the earliest records for Anglo-Saxon England, found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took final shape in about A.D. 1155, refer to kings around A.D. 500, it is easy for the historian to think of kings and states at that period. But the archaeology strongly suggests that a full state society did not emerge until the time of King Offa of Mercia in around A.D. 780, or perhaps King Alfred of Wessex in A.D. 871. It is fairly clear that the earlier so-called kings were generally less significant figures than some of the rulers in either Africa or Polynesia in recent times, whom anthropologists would term “chiefs”.

In paragraph 5, why does the author discuss The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle?

ATo explain why there are only a few written records from Anglo-Saxon England

BTo explain the uses of literacy in Anglo-Saxon England

CTo demonstrate how archaeologists and anthropologists differ in their understanding of kingship

DTo illustrate the risk associated with written records

 

11

Written records undoubtedly contribute greatly to our knowledge of the society in question. But one should not accept them uncritically at face value. Nor should one forget the bias introduced by the accidents of preservation and the particular uses of literacy in a society. The great risk with historical records is that they can impose their own perspective so that they begin not only to supply the answers to our questions but subtly to determine the nature of those questions and even our concepts and terminology. A good example is the question of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England. Most anthropologists and historians tend to think of a king as the leader of a state society. Therefore, when the earliest records for Anglo-Saxon England, found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took final shape in about A.D. 1155, refer to kings around A.D. 500, it is easy for the historian to think of kings and states at that period. But the archaeology strongly suggests that a full state society did not emerge until the time of King Offa of Mercia in around A.D. 780, or perhaps King Alfred of Wessex in A.D. 871. It is fairly clear that the earlier so-called kings were generally less significant figures than some of the rulers in either Africa or Polynesia in recent times, whom anthropologists would term “chiefs”.

According to paragraph 5, all of the following are true about written records EXCEPT

AThey help us understand a lot about the society that produced them.

BThey can influence the kinds of questions we ask about the society that produced them.

CThey provide archaeologists with reliable evidence about the uses of literacy in most ancient societies.

DThey can lead to inaccurate interpretations about the organization of ancient societies.

 

12

Written records undoubtedly contribute greatly to our knowledge of the society in question. But one should not accept them uncritically at face value. Nor should one forget the bias introduced by the accidents of preservation and the particular uses of literacy in a society. The great risk with historical records is that they can impose their own perspective so that they begin not only to supply the answers to our questions but subtly to determine the nature of those questions and even our concepts and terminology. A good example is the question of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England. Most anthropologists and historians tend to think of a king as the leader of a state society. Therefore, when the earliest records for Anglo-Saxon England, found in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took final shape in about A.D. 1155, refer to kings around A.D. 500, it is easy for the historian to think of kings and states at that period. But the archaeology strongly suggests that a full state society did not emerge until the time of King Offa of Mercia in around A.D. 780, or perhaps King Alfred of Wessex in A.D. 871. It is fairly clear that the earlier so-called kings were generally less significant figures than some of the rulers in either Africa or Polynesia in recent times, whom anthropologists would term “chiefs”.

Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about written records from ancient societies?

AThey are of far more interest to historians of ancient societies than to the archaeologists studying those societies.

BThey should be interpreted in light of other archaeological evidence about the society in question.

CThey provide the only reliable sources of evidence about the society that produced them.

DThey have been interpreted differently by archaeologists and anthropologists.

 

13

Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage

Being able to accurately interpret an ancient language has in many cases transformed our knowledge about the society that used it.

Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square  sentence to the passage.

14

Written records of ancient civilizations preserved in several forms have added to our knowledge of early literate societies.

AClay tablets from Mycenaean Greece provide insights into its economy and state structures, and interpreting Mayan symbols on stone stelae has led to a new understanding of Mayan history.

BAccidents of preservation of ancient texts can lead to a misunderstanding of the functions and purposes of writing in early literate societies.

CThe earliest written record of Anglo-Saxon England, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, describes the early kings of England and provides valuable insights into its emergence as a full state society.

DLiterary texts written on marble by the Classical Greek and Roman civilizations have survived, while Egyptian literary texts that were written on papyrus are now very rare.

EAs a result of reading ancient historical texts, historians have come to understand that many early European kings were as powerful as the chiefs of Africa and Polynesia in recent times.

FAncient historical and literary texts present their societies from particular points of view that can lead researcher to develop mistaken assumptions about these societies.

 

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