Early Native American Cultures

In the seventeenth century, the gulf separating European colonists in North America from those who were native to America was defined not only by their material cultures, but also by how they viewed their relationship to the environment and how they defined social relations in their communities.

Regarding the soil as a resource to be exploited for human benefit,Europeans believed that land should be privately possessed. Individual ownership of property became a fundamental concept, and an extensive institutional apparatus grew up to support it. Fences symbolized private property, inheritance became the mechanism for transmitting land from one generation to another within the same family, and courts gained the power to settle property disputes. Property was the basis not only of sustenance, but also of independence, material wealth, political status, and personal identity. The social structure in Europe directly mirrored patterns of land ownership, with a land-wealthy elite at the apex of the social pyramid and a mass of individuals lacking property forming the broad base.

Native Americans also had concepts of property, and tribes recognized territorial boundaries. But they believed that land was invested with sacred qualities and should be held in common. Communal ownership sharply limited social layers in most Native American communities. Accustomed to wide disparities of wealth, Europeans often found this remarkable. Not all Europeans were wealthy,competitive individuals. The majority were peasants scratching a subsistence living from the soil, living in kin-centered villages with little contact with the outside world, and exchanging goods and labor through barter. But in Europe’s urban centers, a wealth-conscious,ambitious individual who valued and sought wider choices and greater opportunities to enhance personal status was coming to the fore. In contrast,Native American traditions stressed the group rather than the individual. Holding land and other resources in common,Native American societies were usually more egalitarian and their members more concerned with personal courage than personal wealth.

European colonizers in North America also found the matrilineal （female-based) organization of many tribal societies odd and unfamiliar. Contrary to European practice, family membership among the Iroquois, for example, was determined through the female line.A typical family consisted of an old woman,her daughters with their husbands and children, and her unmarried granddaughters and grandsons. When a son or grandson married, he moved from this female-headed household to one headed by the matriarch of his wife’s family. Divorce was also the woman’s prerogative. If she desired it, she merely set her husband’s possessions outside the door to their dwelling.European women, with rare exceptions, were entirely excluded from political affairs.By contrast, in Native American villages, again to take the Iroquois example,designated men sat in a circle to deliberate and make decisions,but the senior women of the village stood behind them, lobbying and instructing.The village chiefs were male,but they were named to their positions by the elder women of their clans.If they moved too far from the will of the women who appointed them, these chiefs were removed.

The role of women in the tribal economy reinforced the sharing of power between male and female. Men were responsible for hunting, fishing,and clearing land,but women controlled the cultivation, harvest, and distribution of food. They were responsible for probably three-quarters of their family’s nutritional needs. When the men were away on hunting expeditions,women directed village life.

In economic relations, Europeans and Native Americans differed in ways that sometimes led to misunderstanding and conflict.Over vast stretches of the continent,Native Americans had been involved in trading networks for centuries before Europeans arrived.This experience made it easy for them to engage in trade with arriving Europeans and incorporate new metal and glass trade items into their culture.But trade for Native American peoples was not only a way of acquiring desirable goods. It was also a way of preserving interdependence and equilibrium between individuals and communities. This purpose displayed itself in elaborate ceremonies of gift giving that preceded the exchange of goods. For Europeans, trade was an economic matter with the additional benefit of building good will between two parties, but the social and spiritual functions of trade were sharply limited in comparison with Native Americans.

 

1

Regarding the soil as a resource to be exploited for human benefit,Europeans believed that land should be privately possessed. Individual ownership of property became a fundamental concept, and an extensive institutional apparatus grew up to support it. Fences symbolized private property, inheritance became the mechanism for transmitting land from one generation to another within the same family, and courts gained the power to settle property disputes. Property was the basis not only of sustenance, but also of independence, material wealth, political status, and personal identity. The social structure in Europe directly mirrored patterns of land ownership, with a land-wealthy elite at the apex of the social pyramid and a mass of individuals lacking property forming the broad base.

In paragraph 2, why does the author mention that European courts had the power to settle property disputes?

ATo help explain why individual ownership of property had become a fundamental concept for Europeans

BTo make the point that disagreements in Europe about property ownership were often difficult to resolve

CTo support the idea that property in Europe was regarded primarily as a resource to be developed for human benefit

DTo indicate one way in which individual ownership of property in Europe was supported by social institutions

 

2

Native Americans also had concepts of property, and tribes recognized territorial boundaries. But they believed that land was invested with sacred qualities and should be held in common. Communal ownership sharply limited social layers in most Native American communities. Accustomed to wide disparities of wealth, Europeans often found this remarkable. Not all Europeans were wealthy,competitive individuals. The majority were peasants scratching a subsistence living from the soil, living in kin-centered villages with little contact with the outside world, and exchanging goods and labor through barter. But in Europe’s urban centers, a wealth-conscious,ambitious individual who valued and sought wider choices and greater opportunities to enhance personal status was coming to the fore. In contrast,Native American traditions stressed the group rather than the individual. Holding land and other resources in common,Native American societies were usually more egalitarian and their members more concerned with personal courage than personal wealth.

The phrase “Accustomed to” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Aopposed to

Bexposed to

Cused to

Dsensitive to

 

3

Native Americans also had concepts of property, and tribes recognized territorial boundaries. But they believed that land was invested with sacred qualities and should be held in common. Communal ownership sharply limited social layers in most Native American communities. Accustomed to wide disparities of wealth, Europeans often found this remarkable. Not all Europeans were wealthy,competitive individuals. The majority were peasants scratching a subsistence living from the soil, living in kin-centered villages with little contact with the outside world, and exchanging goods and labor through barter. But in Europe’s urban centers, a wealth-conscious,ambitious individual who valued and sought wider choices and greater opportunities to enhance personal status was coming to the fore. In contrast,Native American traditions stressed the group rather than the individual. Holding land and other resources in common,Native American societies were usually more egalitarian and their members more concerned with personal courage than personal wealth.

According to paragraph 3, what did Europeans find remarkable about Native American communities?

AHow economically and socially equal they were

BHow competitive their people were

CHow much importance they placed on territorial boundaries

DHow they lived so far above subsistence level

 

4

Native Americans also had concepts of property, and tribes recognized territorial boundaries. But they believed that land was invested with sacred qualities and should be held in common. Communal ownership sharply limited social layers in most Native American communities. Accustomed to wide disparities of wealth, Europeans often found this remarkable. Not all Europeans were wealthy,competitive individuals. The majority were peasants scratching a subsistence living from the soil, living in kin-centered villages with little contact with the outside world, and exchanging goods and labor through barter. But in Europe’s urban centers, a wealth-conscious,ambitious individual who valued and sought wider choices and greater opportunities to enhance personal status was coming to the fore. In contrast,Native American traditions stressed the group rather than the individual. Holding land and other resources in common,Native American societies were usually more egalitarian and their members more concerned with personal courage than personal wealth.

According to paragraph 3, one respect in which Native Americans differed from most Europeans was that Native Americans generally

Amade a good living working the soil

Battached greater importance to the community than to the individual

Cdid not exchange goods and services through barter

Dlived in relatively isolated villages in which most people were connected by family ties

 

5

European colonizers in North America also found the matrilineal （female-based) organization of many tribal societies odd and unfamiliar. Contrary to European practice, family membership among the Iroquois, for example, was determined through the female line.A typical family consisted of an old woman,her daughters with their husbands and children, and her unmarried granddaughters and grandsons. When a son or grandson married, he moved from this female-headed household to one headed by the matriarch of his wife’s family. Divorce was also the woman’s prerogative. If she desired it, she merely set her husband’s possessions outside the door to their dwelling.European women, with rare exceptions, were entirely excluded from political affairs.By contrast, in Native American villages, again to take the Iroquois example,designated men sat in a circle to deliberate and make decisions,but the senior women of the village stood behind them, lobbying and instructing.The village chiefs were male,but they were named to their positions by the elder women of their clans.If they moved too far from the will of the women who appointed them, these chiefs were removed.

The word “designated” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Aolder

Bpowerful

Cselected

Dexperienced

 

6

European colonizers in North America also found the matrilineal （female-based) organization of many tribal societies odd and unfamiliar. Contrary to European practice, family membership among the Iroquois, for example, was determined through the female line.A typical family consisted of an old woman,her daughters with their husbands and children, and her unmarried granddaughters and grandsons. When a son or grandson married, he moved from this female-headed household to one headed by the matriarch of his wife’s family. Divorce was also the woman’s prerogative. If she desired it, she merely set her husband’s possessions outside the door to their dwelling.European women, with rare exceptions, were entirely excluded from political affairs.By contrast, in Native American villages, again to take the Iroquois example,designated men sat in a circle to deliberate and make decisions,but the senior women of the village stood behind them, lobbying and instructing.The village chiefs were male,but they were named to their positions by the elder women of their clans.If they moved too far from the will of the women who appointed them, these chiefs were removed.

According to paragraph 4, all of the following were characteristic of Iroquois communities EXCEPT:

AMarried men lived with their wives’ families.

BA woman could divorce her husband whenever she wished to do SO.

CVillage chiefs could be removed from office by the elder women of their clans.

DThe senior women of a village were the officially appointed decision-makers.

 

7

The role of women in the tribal economy reinforced the sharing of power between male and female. Men were responsible for hunting, fishing,and clearing land,but women controlled the cultivation, harvest, and distribution of food. They were responsible for probably three-quarters of their family’s nutritional needs. When the men were away on hunting expeditions,women directed village life.

Paragraph 5 suggests that the political power held by women in Native American villages was due in part to the fact that women

Aaccompanied men on their search for food

Bdetermined the best locations for clearing land

Cwere more willing than men to direct village life

Dprovided for most of the nutritional needs of their families

 

8

In economic relations, Europeans and Native Americans differed in ways that sometimes led to misunderstanding and conflict.Over vast stretches of the continent,Native Americans had been involved in trading networks for centuries before Europeans arrived.This experience made it easy for them to engage in trade with arriving Europeans and incorporate new metal and glass trade items into their culture.But trade for Native American peoples was not only a way of acquiring desirable goods. It was also a way of preserving interdependence and equilibrium between individuals and communities. This purpose displayed itself in elaborate ceremonies of gift giving that preceded the exchange of goods. For Europeans, trade was an economic matter with the additional benefit of building good will between two parties, but the social and spiritual functions of trade were sharply limited in comparison with Native Americans.

According to paragraph 6, one source of misunderstanding and conflict between European colonists and Native Americans was that

Athe colonists were more interested in selling goods to the Native Americans than in buying goods from them

BNative Americans gave trade a greater social significance than just obtaining needed goods

Cthe colonists disrupted long-standing Native American trading networks

DNative Americans had little or no interest in buying European metal and glass items

 

9

European colonizers in North America also found the matrilineal （female-based) organization of many tribal societies odd and unfamiliar. Contrary to European practice, family membership among the Iroquois, for example, was determined through the female line.A typical family consisted of an old woman,her daughters with their husbands and children, and her unmarried granddaughters and grandsons. When a son or grandson married, he moved from this female-headed household to one headed by the matriarch of his wife’s family. Divorce was also the woman’s

Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage

 

Native American women also had more influence outside the home than European women did.

Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square  sentence to the passage.

 

10

Native Americans and European colonists differed sharply in their approach to land and to social and economic relations in their communities.

AIn seventeenth century Europe, individual ownership of property was a fundamental principle that determined social status,whereas Native Americans believed land should be held in common.

BIn contrast to European customs, many tribal societies in North America were matrilineal, and women had considerable power both within the family and in determining the direction of village life.

CArriving Europeans found it easier to begin trade with goods already known to Native Americans in order to reduce misunderstanding and conflict.

DIn the seventeenth century, most Europeans were peasants living in villages, where there were fewer opportunities for acquiring personal wealth than were available to most Native Americans.

EUnlike Native American women,European women outside of major urban centers had almost no influence on political affairs even though they had an equally important role in their village economies.

FFor Europeans,trade was primarily an economic matter with limited social functions,but for Native Americans, trade was an important way of maintaining relations between individuals and communities.

 

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