Early Metallurgy

The earliest metal tools were made by cold hammering copper into simple artifacts. Such objects were fairly common in Near Eastern villages by 6000 B c. Eventually, some people began to melt the copper. They may have achieved sufficiently high temperatures with previously established methods used for firing clay pottery in kilns (ovens). The copper was usually melted into shapes within the furnace itself. Copper metallurgy was widespread in the eastern Mediterranean by about 4000 B c. European smiths (metalworkers)were working copper in the Balkans as early as 3500 B.C. In the Americas, copper working achieved a high degree of refinement in coastal Peru among the Moche and Chimu cultures, and also in western Mesoamerica. In North America, the Archaic peoples of Lake Superior exploited the native deposits of copper ore(rock containing copper) on the southern shores of the lake, and the metal was widely traded across the eastern continent and cold hammered into artifacts from Archaic(650-490 B.C)to Woodlands (1000 B.C.-A.D. 1000) times.

The real explosion in copper metallurgy took place midway through the fourth millennium B.C., when southwest Asian smiths discovered that they could improve the properties of copper by alloying(combining) it with a second metal such as arsenic, lead, or tin. Perhaps the first alloys came about when smiths tried to produce different colors and textures in ornaments. But they soon realized the advantages of alloys that led to stronger, harder, and more easily worked artifacts. Most early bronze-an alloy of copper and tin-contains about 5 to 10 percent alloy material; 10 percent is optimum for hardness. An explosion in metallurgical technology occurred during the third millennium BC, perhaps in part resulting from the spread of writing. The use of tin alloying may have stimulated much trading activity, for the metal is relatively rare, especially in the eastern Mediterranean region. Bronze working was developed to a high pitch in northern China after 2000 B.C.

Smiths during the Bronze Age (3000-1200 B.C.)certainly knew about iron, but it was considered of little apparent use. They knew where to find iron ore (rock containing iron) and how to fashion iron objects by hammering and heating. But the crucial process in iron production is carburization, in which iron is converted into steel. The result is a much harder object, far tougher than bronze tools. When an iron object is carburized, it is heated in close contact with charcoal(a form of carbon) for a considerable period of time. The solubility of carbon in iron is very low at room temperature but increases dramatically at temperatures above 910C, which could easily be achieved with charcoal and a good Bronze Age bellows-a device used to supply air. It was this technological development that led to the widespread adoption of iron technologies in the eastern Mediterranean area at least by 1000 B.C.  

Iron tools are found occasionally in some sites as early as 3000 B.C., but such artifacts were rare until around 1200 B.C., when the first iron weapons in eastern Mediterranean tombs appeared. The new metal was slow to catch on, partly because of the difficulty of extracting it from its ore. Its widespread adoption may coincide with a period of disruption in eastern Mediterranean trade routes as a result of the collapse of several major kingdoms, including that of the Hittites, after 1200 B c Deprived of tin needed to make bronze, the metalworkers turned to a much more readily available substitute-iron. It was soon in use even for utilitarian tools and was first established on a large scale in continental Europe in the seventh century B c by people of the western and central European Hallstatt culture.

Iron ore is much more abundant in nature than copper ore is, being readily obtainable from surface rock formations and wetland deposits. Once its potential was realized, it became much more widely used, and stone and bronze were relegated to subsidiary, often ornamental, uses. It made available abundant supplies of tools with tough cutting edges for agriculture. Moreover, iron tools could be lighter than bronze ones, and they could hold a sharper edge. With iron tools, clearing forests became easier, and people achieved even greater mastery over their environment.

 

 

1

The earliest metal tools were made by cold hammering copper into simple artifacts. Such objects were fairly common in Near Eastern villages by 6000 B c. Eventually, some people began to melt the copper. They may have achieved sufficiently high temperatures with previously established methods used for firing clay pottery in kilns (ovens). The copper was usually melted into shapes within the furnace itself. Copper metallurgy was widespread in the eastern Mediterranean by about 4000 B c. European smiths (metalworkers)were working copper in the Balkans as early as 3500 B.C. In the Americas, copper working achieved a high degree of refinement in coastal Peru among the Moche and Chimu cultures, and also in western Mesoamerica. In North America, the Archaic peoples of Lake Superior exploited the native deposits of copper ore(rock containing copper) on the southern shores of the lake, and the metal was widely traded across the eastern continent and cold hammered into artifacts from Archaic(650-490 B.C)to Woodlands (1000 B.C.-A.D. 1000) times.

According to paragraph 1. which of the following is true about early copper artifacts?

AThey were produced on several different continents.

BThey were often shaped by being melted inside clay pottery.

CThey were originally discovered in North America.

DThey were traded by the Moche and Chimu peoples for other kinds of goods.

 

2

The real explosion in copper metallurgy took place midway through the fourth millennium B.C., when southwest Asian smiths discovered that they could improve the properties of copper by alloying(combining) it with a second metal such as arsenic, lead, or tin. Perhaps the first alloys came about when smiths tried to produce different colors and textures in ornaments. But they soon realized the advantages of alloys that led to stronger, harder, and more easily worked artifacts. Most early bronze-an alloy of copper and tin-contains about 5 to 10 percent alloy material; 10 percent is optimum for hardness. An explosion in metallurgical technology occurred during the third millennium BC, perhaps in part resulting from the spread of writing. The use of tin alloying may have stimulated much trading activity, for the metal is relatively rare, especially in the eastern Mediterranean region. Bronze working was developed to a high pitch in northern China after 2000 B.C.

The word “optimum” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Arequired

Bsufficient

Cusual

Dideal

 

3

The real explosion in copper metallurgy took place midway through the fourth millennium B.C., when southwest Asian smiths discovered that they could improve the properties of copper by alloying(combining) it with a second metal such as arsenic, lead, or tin. Perhaps the first alloys came about when smiths tried to produce different colors and textures in ornaments. But they soon realized the advantages of alloys that led to stronger, harder, and more easily worked artifacts. Most early bronze-an alloy of copper and tin-contains about 5 to 10 percent alloy material; 10 percent is optimum for hardness. An explosion in metallurgical technology occurred during the third millennium BC, perhaps in part resulting from the spread of writing. The use of tin alloying may have stimulated much trading activity, for the metal is relatively rare, especially in the eastern Mediterranean region. Bronze working was developed to a high pitch in northern China after 2000 B.C.

Which of the following is identified in paragraph 2 as a possible effect of the practice of alloying copper?

AIncreased production of ornamental objects

BIncreased trade in material needed for making bronze

CIncreased production of tin in the eastern Mediterranean region

DThe production of artifacts made from three or more metals

 

4

The real explosion in copper metallurgy took place midway through the fourth millennium B.C., when southwest Asian smiths discovered that they could improve the properties of copper by alloying(combining) it with a second metal such as arsenic, lead, or tin. Perhaps the first alloys came about when smiths tried to produce different colors and textures in ornaments. But they soon realized the advantages of alloys that led to stronger, harder, and more easily worked artifacts. Most early bronze-an alloy of copper and tin-contains about 5 to 10 percent alloy material; 10 percent is optimum for hardness. An explosion in metallurgical technology occurred during the third millennium BC, perhaps in part resulting from the spread of writing. The use of tin alloying may have stimulated much trading activity, for the metal is relatively rare, especially in the eastern Mediterranean region. Bronze working was developed to a high pitch in northern China after 2000 B.C.

Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about copper objects made before the mid-fourth millennium BC?

AThey had limited color and texture.

BThey were harder than objects made of lead or tin.

CThey were easier to work than bronze objects later were.

DThey were traded most widely in southwest Asia.

 

5

Smiths during the Bronze Age (3000-1200 B.C.)certainly knew about iron, but it was considered of little apparent use. They knew where to find iron ore (rock containing iron) and how to fashion iron objects by hammering and heating. But the crucial process in iron production is carburization, in which iron is converted into steel. The result is a much harder object, far tougher than bronze tools. When an iron object is carburized, it is heated in close contact with charcoal(a form of carbon) for a considerable period of time. The solubility of carbon in iron is very low at room temperature but increases dramatically at temperatures above 910C, which could easily be achieved with charcoal and a good Bronze Age bellows-a device used to supply air. It was this technological development that led to the widespread adoption of iron technologies in the eastern Mediterranean area at least by 1000 B.C.  

The word “apparent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Apractical

Bpossible

Cimmediate

Dobvious

 

6

Smiths during the Bronze Age (3000-1200 B.C.)certainly knew about iron, but it was considered of little apparent use. They knew where to find iron ore (rock containing iron) and how to fashion iron objects by hammering and heating. But the crucial process in iron production is carburization, in which iron is converted into steel. The result is a much harder object, far tougher than bronze tools. When an iron object is carburized, it is heated in close contact with charcoal(a form of carbon) for a considerable period of time. The solubility of carbon in iron is very low at room temperature but increases dramatically at temperatures above 910C, which could easily be achieved with charcoal and a good Bronze Age bellows-a device used to supply air. It was this technological development that led to the widespread adoption of iron technologies in the eastern Mediterranean area at least by 1000 B.C.  

The phrase “this technological development” in the passage refers to

Aa Bronze-age bellows

Bincreasing temperatures above 910C

Cthe carburization of iron

Dknowing how to fashion iron objects by hammering and heating

 

7

Iron tools are found occasionally in some sites as early as 3000 B.C., but such artifacts were rare until around 1200 B.C., when the first iron weapons in eastern Mediterranean tombs appeared. The new metal was slow to catch on, partly because of the difficulty of extracting it from its ore. Its widespread adoption may coincide with a period of disruption in eastern Mediterranean trade routes as a result of the collapse of several major kingdoms, including that of the Hittites, after 1200 B c Deprived of tin needed to make bronze, the metalworkers turned to a much more readily available substitute-iron. It was soon in use even for utilitarian tools and was first established on a large scale in continental Europe in the seventh century B c by people of the western and central European Hallstatt culture.

The author refers to “a period of disruption in eastern Mediterranean trade routes” after 1200 B.C. in order to

Aexplain why iron artifacts were rare at the time

Bargue that the disruption led to the collapse of several major kingdoms

Csuggest a reason why metalworkers changed from working withtin alloys to working with iron

Dexplain why tin was used instead of other metals for utilitarian tools

 

8

Iron ore is much more abundant in nature than copper ore is, being readily obtainable from surface rock formations and wetland deposits. Once its potential was realized, it became much more widely used, and stone and bronze were relegated to subsidiary, often ornamental, uses. It made available abundant supplies of tools with tough cutting edges for agriculture. Moreover, iron tools could be lighter than bronze ones, and they could hold a sharper edge. With iron tools, clearing forests became easier, and people achieved even greater mastery over their environment.

According to paragraph 5, the use of iron became widespread for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

AIron ore existed in great quantity and was easily accessible.

BIron was more useful than bronze for making ornaments.

CIron could be used to create sharp cutting tools.

DIron could be used to make objects that weighed less than similar bronze ones.

 

9

Look at the four squaresthat indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage

 

The reasons for iron’s immense popularity are clear.

Where would the sentence best fit？Click on a square  sentence to the passage.

 

10

New technologies of the Bronze and Iron Ages brought great advances to the world.

AThe cold-hammering technique for shaping copper artifacts was used until it was discovered that copper could be melted at temperatures below those used for firing clay pots.

BArsenic, lead, and tin were popular copper alloys but their use was limited to small amounts because the metals were rare compared to copper.

CThe introduction of charcoal and bellows into the metalworking process resulted in the production of superior artifacts in China after 2000B.C

DCopper alloys were discovered to produce better metal artifacts than pure copper, and the desirability of tin may have stimulated trading by the third millennium B.C.

EMetalworkers of the Bronze Age were aware of iron, but it did not become widely used until the discovery that carburization could convert iron into more durable steel.

FEventually iron replaced copper alloys as the preferred metal for tools and weapons because iron objects of these types had superior characteristics.

 

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